Neurological Disorders A Brief Synopsis Of Schizophrenia...

Neurological Disorders: A Brief Synopsis of Schizophrenia and Alzheimer’s disease Melissa K. Mark PSY 410 Annette Edwards, PhD November, 2015 Abstract Neurological disorders are diseases of the brain, spine, and connecting nerves, and of the more than 600 neurological diseases (Neurological Disorders, n.d.), Schizophrenia, and Alzheimer’s disease comprise some of the most devastating effect on the human ability to function as there is currently not a cure for either debilitating disease. This paper will utilize scholarly research to discuss behavioral criteria, incidence rates, and treatment options for Schizophrenia and Alzheimer’s disease. Neurological Disorders Millions of people worldwide are affected by one of more†¦show more content†¦Neurodevelopmental disorders are characterized by impairments of the growth and development of the central nervous system as they occur by origin, or during infancy and childhood, inhibiting functions that affect emotion, learning, self-control, motor skills, and memory. Specific disorders within this spectrum include but are not limited to, fetal alcohol syndrome, autism, Tourette syndrome, fragile-X syndrome, Down syndrome, ADHD, Mendelsohn’s syndrome, and schizophrenia. Neurodevelopmental disorders stem from many causes, ranging from chromosomal deficiency, genetic and metabolic diseases, immune disorders, infectious diseases, physical trauma, and nutritional, toxic, and environmental factors (Bale, et.al., 2010). Neurocognitive disorders are classified by significant cognitive decline from prior functioning, affecting memory, speech, communication, behavior, and the ability to complete regulatory tasks. In some cases of neurocognitive dysfunction the condition does not progress, and although rare, some people may even experience improvement. Types of neurocognitive disorders include delirium, mild neurocognitive disorder, major neurocognitive disorder, anxiety, mood, and psychotic disorders, and Alzheimer’s disease. Just as there are many origins of neurodevelopmental disorders, there are also a wide array of causes of neurocognitive disorders including brain disorders,

Animal Farm And Brintons Anatomy Of A Revolution In...

Animal Farm and Brinton’s Anatomy In Animal by George Orwell unrest lies among the animals of Manor Farm. An uprising is sparked by an elder pig, Old Major and carried out by the other animals after he is gone. This uprising follows the beginning patterns of Brinton’s anatomy of a Revolution but seems to freeze before it can complete the entire cycle. The Animal Farm revolution starts with an old order and crisis, followed by dissatisfaction of the near elites, and a moderate regime is established and tends to stay in power while this regime suppresses the reign of terror, so a Thermidorian reaction never can take place. The old order and crisis is the first stage. The old order is Mr. Jones- the owner of Manor Farm. Like kings in†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"The work of teaching and organizing the others fell naturally upon the pigs, who were generally recognized as being the cleverest of the animals,† (page 15). Apparently, the pigs are considered the sm artest, and therefore fall into place as the near elites. Three pigs, Snowball, Napoleon, and Squealer, take charge as the main leaders of the group and rally the animals together. Throughout history, the near elite group gathers allies to back them up for a moderate change to the current situation. These three members of the near elite group teach the other animals a collected number of teachings they gathered from Old Major and create Animalism and the Seven Commandments that rule this new idea. These Seven Commandments act like a promise to the lower animals as to what they should expect in the near future if everyone follows these rules. The biggest point made clear in the commandments is that all animals are equal, since the main concern was the unequal relationship between man and animal. The pigs (mostly Napoleon), begin a moderate regime. From the beginning of this regime, small changes were made, and were disguised as what the animals wanted. For example, cows were and milk ed and the milk was collected, but when asked what would be done with it, the subject was quickly averted and focused on what else could be done, like harvesting hay (page 26). At first, â€Å"the animals were happy as they ever conceived it possible to be. Every mouthful of food was an acute

Stress and Illness A Review of Literature

Question: Discuss a review of literature on stress and illness? Answer: Stress is a condition which put the functioning of different organs of the human body at stake. In the past and in recent years extensive research studies have been conducted on the effects of stress on the human body and on the mental processes of human beings. Most of the studies conducted on stress have found that there is a complex relationship between stress and the development of certain ailments in individuals suffering from excessive stress. Though more research studies are required to establish an explicit relationship between stress and diseases like cardiovascular diseases, the present literature on the topic of concern has emphasized the fact that there is a relationship between stressors and the development of certain diseases. Considering the evidential nature of the literature available on the topic of stress, it can be said that, stress causes illness and such illness encompasses diseases like deterioration of the immunity system and cardiovascular diseases. Stress is the bodys response to any sort of demand for change and often it is caused by both good and bad experiences (Mountain State Centers for Independent Living, n.d.). As a natural reaction to stress the human body secretes some specific chemicals and this secretion sometimes makes the body vulnerable to certain ailments. Psychological effects of excessive stress can be detrimental to the wellbeing of the person experiencing chronic stress. The fight or flight instinctive response is usual in cases of coping with stress and in the course of such response some chemical changes take place within the body which can either provide some short-lived benefits or can give rise to some specific illnesses in the long run (PBS, 2011). Considering the definitions of stress it can be said that, stress is a physiological response to a stressor, or an adverse circumstance in the environment leading to sympathetic nervous system activation, commonly known as the fight-or-flight response (Keefer , 2008). Stress also denotes the bodys way of responding to any kind of threat (Segal et al., 2015). When an individual feels threatened, his/her nervous system starts responding to the threat by releasing specific hormones that are meant for helping the body cope with stress and such hormones include adrenaline and cortisol hormones which help the body to safeguard vital functions in emergency conditions (Segal et al., 2015). Stress increases the rate of functioning of some specific organs in the human body and this includes sudden increase in the heartbeat instigating forceful blood flow which can put the life of certain individuals at stake. Research studies have also found that the release of certain chemicals within the human body in the course of experiencing stress can thoroughly diminish the immunity system of the human body paving the way for the intrusion of specific illnesses. Stress deteriorates the immunity system of human body and this gives rise to some other diseases. In the article, Psychological Stress and the Human Immune System: A Meta-Analytic Study of 30 Years of Inquiry, Suzanne C. Segerstrom and Gregory E. Miller (2004) have stressed on the relationship between stress and illnesses. Conducting a meta-analysis of more than 300 empirical articles discussing the relationship between psychological stress and the deterioration of human immunity system, Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have concluded that excessive stress often results in down-regulation of some specific immunity functions. Chronic stressors, according to Segerstrom and Miller (2004) are responsible for suppressing both cellular and humoral im munity and this may result in the development of some specific illnesses. Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have also stated that in the course of coping with chronic stress, individuals are often faced with the problem of deteriorated immunity system and age and other physical vulnerabilities often add to the process of deterioration making the emergence of some specific illnesses imminent. Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have pointed out, referring to the research studies conducted in the past on the relationship between psychological stress and illness, that, due to stress, sympathetic fibers may descend from the brain and may get infused in bone marrow, thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes and as these fibers have the potential to release a wide variety of substances influencing the immune responses, it can be said that there is a relationship between stress and the immune response. Moreover, there is a behavioral perspective of such relationship too. Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have cited that during stressful events some individuals tend to get engaged in certain behaviors like alcohol use which again can deteriorate the immune system of the body making it easy for viruses and bacteria to enter the body and cause diseases. Considering this relationship between stress and illnesses, Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have stated that behavior should be considered as a pathway that links stress with the immune system. Segerstrom and Millers findings can be related to the information provided by American Heart Association. The American Heart Association (2014) has revealed that, though much more research work is needed to establish a direct relationship between stress and cardiovascular disorders, there are ample evidences to prove the fact that stress gives rise to behaviors which, if sustained for long, can surely contribute to the development of cardiovascular diseases. In this regard the American Heart Association (2014) has revealed that fact that, stress may affect behaviors and factors that increase heart disease risk: high blood pressure and cholesterol levels, smoking, physical inactivity and overeating. The American Heart Association (2014) has also revealed that, Some people may choose to drink too much alcohol or smoke cigarette to manage their chronic stress, however these habits can increase blood pressure and may damage artery walls. Referring to studies conducted by Marshall et al. and Chiappelli et al. in 1998 and 1994 respectively, Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have stated that chronic stress has the potential to alter the patterns of cytokine secretion and this causes the suppression of Th1 cytokines which are responsible for activating cellular immunity which is meant for providing defense agains several kinds of infection and some specific kinds of neoplastic diseases. As a result of such alteration and suppression the body becomes vulnerable to illnesses. Moreover, Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have also pointed out that such suppression renders permissive effects on the production of Th2 cytokines which have the potential to activate humoral immunity and to instigate allergy and several other autoimmune diseases. Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have also stated that as such shift occurs via the effects of stress hormones such as cortisol, there is inevitably a relationship between stress and immunity-related illnesses. Amplifying the negative impact of stres s on human body and on the human immunity system, Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have pointed out how stress can give rise to autoimmune diseases in the course of which the immune system starts treating self-tissues as invaders and starts attacking them causing pathological conditions such as multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, Crohns disease and several other related diseases. In the article, Reconsidering the methodology of stress research in inflammatory bowel disease, Laurie Keefer, Ali Keshavarzian, and Ece Mutlu (2008) have emphasized the research studies conducted on the relationship between stress and inflammatory bowel disease. Focusing on present literature on the relationship between stress and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), Keefer et al.(2008) have stated that, stress plays a direct role in the pathophysiology of IBD. Environmental stress, according to Keefer et al. (2004) plays an important role in enhancing IBD and though not explicitly proven due to some specific constraints, the fact that stress can instigate illnesses remains a truth. Apart from emphasizing on the relationship between stress and IBD, several research studies have also stressed the important role played by psychological stress in instigating cardiovascular diseases. Whether or not acute life event stressors play significant role in triggering coronary heart disease is a fact that needs to be researched and evaluated more, but present literature on the relationship between stress and cardiovascular diseases have hinted on the fact that acute life event stressors can actually trigger coronary heart disease (CHD) events (Bunker et al., 2003). It is to be noted in this regard that, Although the deleterious physiological effects of acute stressors as CHD triggers are well documented, the role of chronic stressors in CHD onset and prognosis remains unclear. But this doesnt mean that there is scarcity of research studies emphasizing the relationship between stress and cardiovascular diseases. In the research article, Psychological stress and cardiovascular disease: empirical demonstration of bias in a prospective observational study of Scottish men, Macleod et al. (2002) have emphasized the relationship between psychological stress and cardiovascular d iseases. Macleod et al. (2002) have concluded that there is a weak positive association between angina admissions and stress, but there is a more strongly positive association between stress and cardiovascular conditions where admission was likely to be, to a substantial degree, discretionary or when diagnostic classification reflected non-specific symptoms or signs. Even though Macleod et al. have remained inconclusive about the direct relationship between stress and different cardiovascular diseases, it must be said that stress is directly related to heart attacks and some other critical cardiovascular diseases. Stress causes angina, hypertension, arrhythmia, and several other heart-related problems, and if these problems sustain for long, an individuals life may be at stake. Stress itself is a problem and it raises an individuals blood pressure which is not good for the body and it is also not good for the body to get exposed to stress hormones on a continuous basis (WebMD, 2014). It must be noted in this regard that, Studies also link stress to changes in the way blood clots, which makes a heart attack more likely (WebMD, 2014). The relationship between stress and cardiovascular diseases has been the focus of the article, Psychological Stress and Cardiovascular Disease by Joel E. Dimsdale (2008). Dimsdale (2008) has emphasized the relationship between stress and cardiovascular diseases by citing research studies which have revealed that long-term stressors impact negatively on cardiac functions. Job stress, marital unhappiness, and burden of care-giving are some of the stressful factors which can instigate cardiovascular diseases and Dimsdale (2008) has pointed out that several studies on the relationship between stress and cardiovascular diseases have revealed the fact that stress ushers pathophysiological changes which can result in sudden death, myocardial infarction, myocardial ischemia, and abnormalities including wall motion abnormality. Stressors impact negatively upon sympathetic nervous system activities and such negative impact cause several illnesses (Dimsdale, 2008). Stress can also cause hemosta sis which can put the life of an individual at stake (Dimsdale, 2008). Dimsdale (2008) has also pointed out that, Although stressors trigger events, it is less clear that stress causes the events. There is nonetheless overwhelming evidence both for the deleterious effects of stress on the heart and for the fact that vulnerability and resilience factors play a role in amplifying or dampening those effects. Dimsdale (2008) has concluded that, there is a relationship between cardiovascular diseases and stress and when the stressor continues or when the patient continues imposing the stressor through brooding, there are adverse effects on the heart. Though considerably modifiable, stress-related cardiac risk is a fact and the relationship is also evidential in nature. Dimsdales claims can be supported by citing the points of discussion that prevails in the article, Stress and cardiovascular disease in which Steptoe and Kivimaki (2012) have referred to epidemiological data which shows that chronic stress has the potential to predict the occurrence of coronary heart disease on the part of specific individuals who are exposed to continuous stress. Steptoe and Kivimaki (2012) have stated that, those individuals who are continuously exposed to work-related stress and those individuals who are exposed to social isolation have greater chances of developing coronary heart disease. Stress like the ones related to job has the potential to put individuals at risk of developing complicated heart diseases. This argument can be supported by citing the fact that, One study found a linear progression between self-reported psychological stress a nd damage to the carotid artery. The extensive Whitehall Study in the UK among government employees found that those with the least control over their work had the highest rates of heart disease (World Heart Federation, 2016). Steptoe and Kivimaki (2012) have also pointed out that, cardiac problems can be triggered by short-term emotional stress and such phenomenon is specifically observable among individuals suffering from advanced atherosclerosis. Steptoe and Kivimaki (2012) have also revealed the fact that, acute psychological stress can induce transient myocardial ischemia in patients suffering from coronary heart disease (CHD). Steptoe and Kivimaki (2012) have also stated that, long-term stress can increase the risk of recurrent CHD events and mortality. Steptoe and Kivimakis (2012) findings can be supported by citing the fact that, stress undoubtedly exerts real physiological effects on human body and it can impact negatively upon the heart (Harvard Health Publications: HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL, 2013). Sudden exposure to stress (generated through news of death of a child, etc) can actually damage arteries and it has been found that when cardiac catheterization of an individual who have suffered from anxiety attack is done, an artery that was previously open is observed to be closed (Harvard Health Publications: HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL, 2013). This proves that stress has a direct relationship to cardiovascular diseases and anx iety-related illnesses. Moreover, cardiovascular damage in the form of broken heart syndrome is also an outcome of severe and acute form of stress (Harvard Health Publications: HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL, 2013). In conclusion, though more research studies are required to establish an explicit relationship between stress and diseases like cardiovascular diseases, the present literature on the topic of concern has emphasized the fact that there is a relationship between stressors and the development of certain diseases. Considering the evidential nature of the literature available on the topic of stress, it can be said that, stress causes illness and such illness encompasses diseases like deterioration of the immunity system and cardiovascular diseases. Stress increases the rate of functioning of some specific organs in the human body and this includes sudden increase in the heartbeat instigating forceful blood flow which can put the life of certain individuals at stake. Research studies have also found that the release of certain chemicals within the human body in the course of experiencing stress can thoroughly diminish the immunity system of the human body paving the way for the intrusion o f specific illnesses. Chronic stressors are responsible for suppressing both cellular and humoral immunity and this may result in the development of some specific illnesses. Moreover, due to stress, sympathetic fibers may descend from the brain and may get infused in bone marrow, thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes and as these fibers have the potential to release a wide variety of substances influencing the immune responses, it can be said that there is a relationship between stress and the immune response. Stress can give rise to autoimmune diseases in the course of which the immune system starts treating self-tissues as invaders and starts attacking those tissues, causing pathological conditions such as multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, Crohns disease and several other related diseases. Stress is directly related to heart attacks and some other critical cardiovascular diseases. Stress causes angina, hypertension, arrhythmia, and several other heart-related problems, an d if these problems sustain for long, an individuals life may be at stake. References American Heart Association, (2014). Stress and Heart Health. [online] Available at: https://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/StressManagement/HowDoesStressAffectYou/Stress-and-Heart-Health_UCM_437370_Article.jsp#.Vo0u9_l97IU [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Bunker, S., Colquhoun, D., Esler, M., Hickie, I., Hunt, D., Jelinek, V., Oldenburg, B., Peach, H., Ruth, D., Tennant, C. and Tonkin, A. (2003). "Stress" and coronary heart disease: psychosocial risk factors. The Medical Journal of Australia, [online] 178(6), pp.272-276. Available at: https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2003/178/6/stress-and-coronary-heart-disease-psychosocial-risk-factors [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Dimsdale, J. (2008). Psychological Stress and Cardiovascular Disease. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, [online] 51(13), pp.1237-1246. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2633295/ [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Harvard Health Publications: HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL, (2013). Stress and your heart. [online] Available at: https://www.health.harvard.edu/heart-health/stress-and-your-heart [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Keefer, L., Keshavarzian, A. and Mutlu, E. (2008). Reconsidering the methodology of stress research in inflammatory bowel disease. Journal of Crohn's and Colitis, [online] 2(3), pp.193-201. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1873994608000044 [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Macleod, J., Smith, G., Heslop, P., Metcalfe, C., Carroll, D. and Hart, C. (2002). Psychological stress and cardiovascular disease: empirical demonstration of bias in a prospective observational study of Scottish men. British Medical Journal. [online] Available at: https://www.bmj.com/content/324/7348/1247 [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Mountain State Centers for Independent Living, (n.d.). UNDERSTANDING AND DEALING WITH STRESS. [online] Available at: https://www.mtstcil.org/skills/stress-definition-1.html [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. PBS, (n.d.). What is stress?. [online] Available at: https://www.pbs.org/thisemotionallife/topic/stress-and-anxiety/what-stress [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Segal, J., Smith, M., Segal, R. and Robinson, L. (2015). Stress Symptoms, Signs, and Causes. [online] helpguide.org. Available at: https://www.helpguide.org/articles/stress/stress-symptoms-causes-and-effects.htm [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Segerstrom, S. and Miller, G. (2004). Psychological Stress and the Human Immune System: A Meta-Analytic Study of 30 Years of Inquiry. Psychological Bulletin, [online] 130(4), pp.601-630. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1361287/ [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Steptoe, A. and Kivimaki, M. (2012). Stress and cardiovascular disease. Nature Reviews Cardiology, [online] 9(6), pp.360-370. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22473079 [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. WebMD, (2014). Heart Disease Health Center. [online] Available at: https://www.webmd.com/heart-disease/guide/stress-heart-disease-risk [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. World Heart Federation, (2016). Stress. [online] Available at: https://www.world-heart-federation.org/cardiovascular-health/cardiovascular-disease-risk-factors/stress/ [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016].

Megans Law Essays - Sex Offender Registries In The United States

Megan's Law What is the best way to deal with people who prey on our children? Should we send them away forever or should we brand them sex offenders for the rest of their lives. Do the sex offenders have rights? The government feels that the best way to deal with this type of criminal is to brand them. Megan's Law or Registration of sex offender law was created so that people would be able to protect themselves and their children from such people. Sex offenders, supposedly, are chemically unbalanced and are unable to control themselves. Therefore, a high rates of recidivism. So in an effort to control them we have a registration program. But maybe we have gone too far. Do these monsters have rights? Is it okay to punish them again for the second time? Megan's law is a program to register sex offenders. In New Jersey Statutes Annotated Megan's law is defined as a person who has been convicted, adjudicated delinquent or found not guilty by reason of insanity for commission of a sex offense, will register. A person who fails to register as required under this act will be found guilty of a crime in the forth degree. The law goes on to explain who registers with whom. It also says who is allowed to see the list of the registered sex offenders. There are several tiers that are involved. These were created when the law was first placed on the books in New Jersey. The first tier is the person who committed 3rd degree sex crime; those people are to notify only the police. Those who committed a 2nd degree sex crime are to notify the police and community leaders. Finally those who commit at 1st degree sex crime have to notify all those in the community. As of now all fifty states have a law similar to Megan's law on their books. When a person is convicted and/or released from prison on a sex crime offense they must register with the community they wish to live in. With whom they need to notify depends on the state with which they live. Some states have the sex offender notify the police of they're where abouts, and some tell the entire community. The purpose of this law is to protect the communities around the nation for dangerous sex criminals. The object is to register person(s) as sex offenders to keep track of their location. It is like a life time on parole. Megan's Law or registration of sex offenders is a program created out of crisis and horror. On July 29, 1994 in Hamilton Township, New Jersey Megan Kanka was murdered. In Megan's neighborhood lived a sex offender named Jesse Timmendequas. He lived across the street from Megan. On this day Megan was heading home and right before she made it to her front door Timmendequas invited her into his house. He asked her if she wanted to see his puppy. He led her to an upstairs bedroom and strangled her unconscious with his belt. He raped her and the suffocated her with a plastic bag. When he was done, he put her in a tool box and dumped her in a local park. After this occurred, exactly three months on October 31, 1994, the governor of New Jersey passed Megan's law. It has been challenged by some a sex offender in the case Artway v New Jersey. Artway argued that his constitutional rights had been violated. He felt that this law was Ex Post Facto, after the fact. He also said that it was cruel a nd unusual punishment, double jeopardy, and violated his right to privacy. In that decision the notification was ruled to be unconstitutional. But the act itself of registration was constitutional. When one starts to look into this law not much, is written. What can be found are many articles saying what the critics think will happen. Things that are discussed are the Ex Post Facto law, and the constitutionality. The fact is this law will work. When put into place it will keep sex offenders away from children and keep them out of your neighborhood. The problem is that the outcome is not really understood. Some