Neurological Disorders A Brief Synopsis Of Schizophrenia...

Neurological Disorders: A Brief Synopsis of Schizophrenia and Alzheimer’s disease Melissa K. Mark PSY 410 Annette Edwards, PhD November, 2015 Abstract Neurological disorders are diseases of the brain, spine, and connecting nerves, and of the more than 600 neurological diseases (Neurological Disorders, n.d.), Schizophrenia, and Alzheimer’s disease comprise some of the most devastating effect on the human ability to function as there is currently not a cure for either debilitating disease. This paper will utilize scholarly research to discuss behavioral criteria, incidence rates, and treatment options for Schizophrenia and Alzheimer’s disease. Neurological Disorders Millions of people worldwide are affected by one of more†¦show more content†¦Neurodevelopmental disorders are characterized by impairments of the growth and development of the central nervous system as they occur by origin, or during infancy and childhood, inhibiting functions that affect emotion, learning, self-control, motor skills, and memory. Specific disorders within this spectrum include but are not limited to, fetal alcohol syndrome, autism, Tourette syndrome, fragile-X syndrome, Down syndrome, ADHD, Mendelsohn’s syndrome, and schizophrenia. Neurodevelopmental disorders stem from many causes, ranging from chromosomal deficiency, genetic and metabolic diseases, immune disorders, infectious diseases, physical trauma, and nutritional, toxic, and environmental factors (Bale, et.al., 2010). Neurocognitive disorders are classified by significant cognitive decline from prior functioning, affecting memory, speech, communication, behavior, and the ability to complete regulatory tasks. In some cases of neurocognitive dysfunction the condition does not progress, and although rare, some people may even experience improvement. Types of neurocognitive disorders include delirium, mild neurocognitive disorder, major neurocognitive disorder, anxiety, mood, and psychotic disorders, and Alzheimer’s disease. Just as there are many origins of neurodevelopmental disorders, there are also a wide array of causes of neurocognitive disorders including brain disorders,

Animal Farm And Brintons Anatomy Of A Revolution In...

Animal Farm and Brinton’s Anatomy In Animal by George Orwell unrest lies among the animals of Manor Farm. An uprising is sparked by an elder pig, Old Major and carried out by the other animals after he is gone. This uprising follows the beginning patterns of Brinton’s anatomy of a Revolution but seems to freeze before it can complete the entire cycle. The Animal Farm revolution starts with an old order and crisis, followed by dissatisfaction of the near elites, and a moderate regime is established and tends to stay in power while this regime suppresses the reign of terror, so a Thermidorian reaction never can take place. The old order and crisis is the first stage. The old order is Mr. Jones- the owner of Manor Farm. Like kings in†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"The work of teaching and organizing the others fell naturally upon the pigs, who were generally recognized as being the cleverest of the animals,† (page 15). Apparently, the pigs are considered the sm artest, and therefore fall into place as the near elites. Three pigs, Snowball, Napoleon, and Squealer, take charge as the main leaders of the group and rally the animals together. Throughout history, the near elite group gathers allies to back them up for a moderate change to the current situation. These three members of the near elite group teach the other animals a collected number of teachings they gathered from Old Major and create Animalism and the Seven Commandments that rule this new idea. These Seven Commandments act like a promise to the lower animals as to what they should expect in the near future if everyone follows these rules. The biggest point made clear in the commandments is that all animals are equal, since the main concern was the unequal relationship between man and animal. The pigs (mostly Napoleon), begin a moderate regime. From the beginning of this regime, small changes were made, and were disguised as what the animals wanted. For example, cows were and milk ed and the milk was collected, but when asked what would be done with it, the subject was quickly averted and focused on what else could be done, like harvesting hay (page 26). At first, â€Å"the animals were happy as they ever conceived it possible to be. Every mouthful of food was an acute

Stress and Illness A Review of Literature

Question: Discuss a review of literature on stress and illness? Answer: Stress is a condition which put the functioning of different organs of the human body at stake. In the past and in recent years extensive research studies have been conducted on the effects of stress on the human body and on the mental processes of human beings. Most of the studies conducted on stress have found that there is a complex relationship between stress and the development of certain ailments in individuals suffering from excessive stress. Though more research studies are required to establish an explicit relationship between stress and diseases like cardiovascular diseases, the present literature on the topic of concern has emphasized the fact that there is a relationship between stressors and the development of certain diseases. Considering the evidential nature of the literature available on the topic of stress, it can be said that, stress causes illness and such illness encompasses diseases like deterioration of the immunity system and cardiovascular diseases. Stress is the bodys response to any sort of demand for change and often it is caused by both good and bad experiences (Mountain State Centers for Independent Living, n.d.). As a natural reaction to stress the human body secretes some specific chemicals and this secretion sometimes makes the body vulnerable to certain ailments. Psychological effects of excessive stress can be detrimental to the wellbeing of the person experiencing chronic stress. The fight or flight instinctive response is usual in cases of coping with stress and in the course of such response some chemical changes take place within the body which can either provide some short-lived benefits or can give rise to some specific illnesses in the long run (PBS, 2011). Considering the definitions of stress it can be said that, stress is a physiological response to a stressor, or an adverse circumstance in the environment leading to sympathetic nervous system activation, commonly known as the fight-or-flight response (Keefer , 2008). Stress also denotes the bodys way of responding to any kind of threat (Segal et al., 2015). When an individual feels threatened, his/her nervous system starts responding to the threat by releasing specific hormones that are meant for helping the body cope with stress and such hormones include adrenaline and cortisol hormones which help the body to safeguard vital functions in emergency conditions (Segal et al., 2015). Stress increases the rate of functioning of some specific organs in the human body and this includes sudden increase in the heartbeat instigating forceful blood flow which can put the life of certain individuals at stake. Research studies have also found that the release of certain chemicals within the human body in the course of experiencing stress can thoroughly diminish the immunity system of the human body paving the way for the intrusion of specific illnesses. Stress deteriorates the immunity system of human body and this gives rise to some other diseases. In the article, Psychological Stress and the Human Immune System: A Meta-Analytic Study of 30 Years of Inquiry, Suzanne C. Segerstrom and Gregory E. Miller (2004) have stressed on the relationship between stress and illnesses. Conducting a meta-analysis of more than 300 empirical articles discussing the relationship between psychological stress and the deterioration of human immunity system, Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have concluded that excessive stress often results in down-regulation of some specific immunity functions. Chronic stressors, according to Segerstrom and Miller (2004) are responsible for suppressing both cellular and humoral im munity and this may result in the development of some specific illnesses. Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have also stated that in the course of coping with chronic stress, individuals are often faced with the problem of deteriorated immunity system and age and other physical vulnerabilities often add to the process of deterioration making the emergence of some specific illnesses imminent. Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have pointed out, referring to the research studies conducted in the past on the relationship between psychological stress and illness, that, due to stress, sympathetic fibers may descend from the brain and may get infused in bone marrow, thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes and as these fibers have the potential to release a wide variety of substances influencing the immune responses, it can be said that there is a relationship between stress and the immune response. Moreover, there is a behavioral perspective of such relationship too. Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have cited that during stressful events some individuals tend to get engaged in certain behaviors like alcohol use which again can deteriorate the immune system of the body making it easy for viruses and bacteria to enter the body and cause diseases. Considering this relationship between stress and illnesses, Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have stated that behavior should be considered as a pathway that links stress with the immune system. Segerstrom and Millers findings can be related to the information provided by American Heart Association. The American Heart Association (2014) has revealed that, though much more research work is needed to establish a direct relationship between stress and cardiovascular disorders, there are ample evidences to prove the fact that stress gives rise to behaviors which, if sustained for long, can surely contribute to the development of cardiovascular diseases. In this regard the American Heart Association (2014) has revealed that fact that, stress may affect behaviors and factors that increase heart disease risk: high blood pressure and cholesterol levels, smoking, physical inactivity and overeating. The American Heart Association (2014) has also revealed that, Some people may choose to drink too much alcohol or smoke cigarette to manage their chronic stress, however these habits can increase blood pressure and may damage artery walls. Referring to studies conducted by Marshall et al. and Chiappelli et al. in 1998 and 1994 respectively, Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have stated that chronic stress has the potential to alter the patterns of cytokine secretion and this causes the suppression of Th1 cytokines which are responsible for activating cellular immunity which is meant for providing defense agains several kinds of infection and some specific kinds of neoplastic diseases. As a result of such alteration and suppression the body becomes vulnerable to illnesses. Moreover, Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have also pointed out that such suppression renders permissive effects on the production of Th2 cytokines which have the potential to activate humoral immunity and to instigate allergy and several other autoimmune diseases. Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have also stated that as such shift occurs via the effects of stress hormones such as cortisol, there is inevitably a relationship between stress and immunity-related illnesses. Amplifying the negative impact of stres s on human body and on the human immunity system, Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have pointed out how stress can give rise to autoimmune diseases in the course of which the immune system starts treating self-tissues as invaders and starts attacking them causing pathological conditions such as multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, Crohns disease and several other related diseases. In the article, Reconsidering the methodology of stress research in inflammatory bowel disease, Laurie Keefer, Ali Keshavarzian, and Ece Mutlu (2008) have emphasized the research studies conducted on the relationship between stress and inflammatory bowel disease. Focusing on present literature on the relationship between stress and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), Keefer et al.(2008) have stated that, stress plays a direct role in the pathophysiology of IBD. Environmental stress, according to Keefer et al. (2004) plays an important role in enhancing IBD and though not explicitly proven due to some specific constraints, the fact that stress can instigate illnesses remains a truth. Apart from emphasizing on the relationship between stress and IBD, several research studies have also stressed the important role played by psychological stress in instigating cardiovascular diseases. Whether or not acute life event stressors play significant role in triggering coronary heart disease is a fact that needs to be researched and evaluated more, but present literature on the relationship between stress and cardiovascular diseases have hinted on the fact that acute life event stressors can actually trigger coronary heart disease (CHD) events (Bunker et al., 2003). It is to be noted in this regard that, Although the deleterious physiological effects of acute stressors as CHD triggers are well documented, the role of chronic stressors in CHD onset and prognosis remains unclear. But this doesnt mean that there is scarcity of research studies emphasizing the relationship between stress and cardiovascular diseases. In the research article, Psychological stress and cardiovascular disease: empirical demonstration of bias in a prospective observational study of Scottish men, Macleod et al. (2002) have emphasized the relationship between psychological stress and cardiovascular d iseases. Macleod et al. (2002) have concluded that there is a weak positive association between angina admissions and stress, but there is a more strongly positive association between stress and cardiovascular conditions where admission was likely to be, to a substantial degree, discretionary or when diagnostic classification reflected non-specific symptoms or signs. Even though Macleod et al. have remained inconclusive about the direct relationship between stress and different cardiovascular diseases, it must be said that stress is directly related to heart attacks and some other critical cardiovascular diseases. Stress causes angina, hypertension, arrhythmia, and several other heart-related problems, and if these problems sustain for long, an individuals life may be at stake. Stress itself is a problem and it raises an individuals blood pressure which is not good for the body and it is also not good for the body to get exposed to stress hormones on a continuous basis (WebMD, 2014). It must be noted in this regard that, Studies also link stress to changes in the way blood clots, which makes a heart attack more likely (WebMD, 2014). The relationship between stress and cardiovascular diseases has been the focus of the article, Psychological Stress and Cardiovascular Disease by Joel E. Dimsdale (2008). Dimsdale (2008) has emphasized the relationship between stress and cardiovascular diseases by citing research studies which have revealed that long-term stressors impact negatively on cardiac functions. Job stress, marital unhappiness, and burden of care-giving are some of the stressful factors which can instigate cardiovascular diseases and Dimsdale (2008) has pointed out that several studies on the relationship between stress and cardiovascular diseases have revealed the fact that stress ushers pathophysiological changes which can result in sudden death, myocardial infarction, myocardial ischemia, and abnormalities including wall motion abnormality. Stressors impact negatively upon sympathetic nervous system activities and such negative impact cause several illnesses (Dimsdale, 2008). Stress can also cause hemosta sis which can put the life of an individual at stake (Dimsdale, 2008). Dimsdale (2008) has also pointed out that, Although stressors trigger events, it is less clear that stress causes the events. There is nonetheless overwhelming evidence both for the deleterious effects of stress on the heart and for the fact that vulnerability and resilience factors play a role in amplifying or dampening those effects. Dimsdale (2008) has concluded that, there is a relationship between cardiovascular diseases and stress and when the stressor continues or when the patient continues imposing the stressor through brooding, there are adverse effects on the heart. Though considerably modifiable, stress-related cardiac risk is a fact and the relationship is also evidential in nature. Dimsdales claims can be supported by citing the points of discussion that prevails in the article, Stress and cardiovascular disease in which Steptoe and Kivimaki (2012) have referred to epidemiological data which shows that chronic stress has the potential to predict the occurrence of coronary heart disease on the part of specific individuals who are exposed to continuous stress. Steptoe and Kivimaki (2012) have stated that, those individuals who are continuously exposed to work-related stress and those individuals who are exposed to social isolation have greater chances of developing coronary heart disease. Stress like the ones related to job has the potential to put individuals at risk of developing complicated heart diseases. This argument can be supported by citing the fact that, One study found a linear progression between self-reported psychological stress a nd damage to the carotid artery. The extensive Whitehall Study in the UK among government employees found that those with the least control over their work had the highest rates of heart disease (World Heart Federation, 2016). Steptoe and Kivimaki (2012) have also pointed out that, cardiac problems can be triggered by short-term emotional stress and such phenomenon is specifically observable among individuals suffering from advanced atherosclerosis. Steptoe and Kivimaki (2012) have also revealed the fact that, acute psychological stress can induce transient myocardial ischemia in patients suffering from coronary heart disease (CHD). Steptoe and Kivimaki (2012) have also stated that, long-term stress can increase the risk of recurrent CHD events and mortality. Steptoe and Kivimakis (2012) findings can be supported by citing the fact that, stress undoubtedly exerts real physiological effects on human body and it can impact negatively upon the heart (Harvard Health Publications: HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL, 2013). Sudden exposure to stress (generated through news of death of a child, etc) can actually damage arteries and it has been found that when cardiac catheterization of an individual who have suffered from anxiety attack is done, an artery that was previously open is observed to be closed (Harvard Health Publications: HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL, 2013). This proves that stress has a direct relationship to cardiovascular diseases and anx iety-related illnesses. Moreover, cardiovascular damage in the form of broken heart syndrome is also an outcome of severe and acute form of stress (Harvard Health Publications: HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL, 2013). In conclusion, though more research studies are required to establish an explicit relationship between stress and diseases like cardiovascular diseases, the present literature on the topic of concern has emphasized the fact that there is a relationship between stressors and the development of certain diseases. Considering the evidential nature of the literature available on the topic of stress, it can be said that, stress causes illness and such illness encompasses diseases like deterioration of the immunity system and cardiovascular diseases. Stress increases the rate of functioning of some specific organs in the human body and this includes sudden increase in the heartbeat instigating forceful blood flow which can put the life of certain individuals at stake. Research studies have also found that the release of certain chemicals within the human body in the course of experiencing stress can thoroughly diminish the immunity system of the human body paving the way for the intrusion o f specific illnesses. Chronic stressors are responsible for suppressing both cellular and humoral immunity and this may result in the development of some specific illnesses. Moreover, due to stress, sympathetic fibers may descend from the brain and may get infused in bone marrow, thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes and as these fibers have the potential to release a wide variety of substances influencing the immune responses, it can be said that there is a relationship between stress and the immune response. Stress can give rise to autoimmune diseases in the course of which the immune system starts treating self-tissues as invaders and starts attacking those tissues, causing pathological conditions such as multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, Crohns disease and several other related diseases. Stress is directly related to heart attacks and some other critical cardiovascular diseases. Stress causes angina, hypertension, arrhythmia, and several other heart-related problems, an d if these problems sustain for long, an individuals life may be at stake. References American Heart Association, (2014). Stress and Heart Health. [online] Available at: https://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/StressManagement/HowDoesStressAffectYou/Stress-and-Heart-Health_UCM_437370_Article.jsp#.Vo0u9_l97IU [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Bunker, S., Colquhoun, D., Esler, M., Hickie, I., Hunt, D., Jelinek, V., Oldenburg, B., Peach, H., Ruth, D., Tennant, C. and Tonkin, A. (2003). "Stress" and coronary heart disease: psychosocial risk factors. The Medical Journal of Australia, [online] 178(6), pp.272-276. Available at: https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2003/178/6/stress-and-coronary-heart-disease-psychosocial-risk-factors [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Dimsdale, J. (2008). Psychological Stress and Cardiovascular Disease. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, [online] 51(13), pp.1237-1246. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2633295/ [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Harvard Health Publications: HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL, (2013). Stress and your heart. [online] Available at: https://www.health.harvard.edu/heart-health/stress-and-your-heart [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Keefer, L., Keshavarzian, A. and Mutlu, E. (2008). Reconsidering the methodology of stress research in inflammatory bowel disease. Journal of Crohn's and Colitis, [online] 2(3), pp.193-201. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1873994608000044 [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Macleod, J., Smith, G., Heslop, P., Metcalfe, C., Carroll, D. and Hart, C. (2002). Psychological stress and cardiovascular disease: empirical demonstration of bias in a prospective observational study of Scottish men. British Medical Journal. [online] Available at: https://www.bmj.com/content/324/7348/1247 [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Mountain State Centers for Independent Living, (n.d.). UNDERSTANDING AND DEALING WITH STRESS. [online] Available at: https://www.mtstcil.org/skills/stress-definition-1.html [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. PBS, (n.d.). What is stress?. [online] Available at: https://www.pbs.org/thisemotionallife/topic/stress-and-anxiety/what-stress [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Segal, J., Smith, M., Segal, R. and Robinson, L. (2015). Stress Symptoms, Signs, and Causes. [online] helpguide.org. Available at: https://www.helpguide.org/articles/stress/stress-symptoms-causes-and-effects.htm [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Segerstrom, S. and Miller, G. (2004). Psychological Stress and the Human Immune System: A Meta-Analytic Study of 30 Years of Inquiry. Psychological Bulletin, [online] 130(4), pp.601-630. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1361287/ [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Steptoe, A. and Kivimaki, M. (2012). Stress and cardiovascular disease. Nature Reviews Cardiology, [online] 9(6), pp.360-370. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22473079 [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. WebMD, (2014). Heart Disease Health Center. [online] Available at: https://www.webmd.com/heart-disease/guide/stress-heart-disease-risk [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. World Heart Federation, (2016). Stress. [online] Available at: https://www.world-heart-federation.org/cardiovascular-health/cardiovascular-disease-risk-factors/stress/ [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016].

Megans Law Essays - Sex Offender Registries In The United States

Megan's Law What is the best way to deal with people who prey on our children? Should we send them away forever or should we brand them sex offenders for the rest of their lives. Do the sex offenders have rights? The government feels that the best way to deal with this type of criminal is to brand them. Megan's Law or Registration of sex offender law was created so that people would be able to protect themselves and their children from such people. Sex offenders, supposedly, are chemically unbalanced and are unable to control themselves. Therefore, a high rates of recidivism. So in an effort to control them we have a registration program. But maybe we have gone too far. Do these monsters have rights? Is it okay to punish them again for the second time? Megan's law is a program to register sex offenders. In New Jersey Statutes Annotated Megan's law is defined as a person who has been convicted, adjudicated delinquent or found not guilty by reason of insanity for commission of a sex offense, will register. A person who fails to register as required under this act will be found guilty of a crime in the forth degree. The law goes on to explain who registers with whom. It also says who is allowed to see the list of the registered sex offenders. There are several tiers that are involved. These were created when the law was first placed on the books in New Jersey. The first tier is the person who committed 3rd degree sex crime; those people are to notify only the police. Those who committed a 2nd degree sex crime are to notify the police and community leaders. Finally those who commit at 1st degree sex crime have to notify all those in the community. As of now all fifty states have a law similar to Megan's law on their books. When a person is convicted and/or released from prison on a sex crime offense they must register with the community they wish to live in. With whom they need to notify depends on the state with which they live. Some states have the sex offender notify the police of they're where abouts, and some tell the entire community. The purpose of this law is to protect the communities around the nation for dangerous sex criminals. The object is to register person(s) as sex offenders to keep track of their location. It is like a life time on parole. Megan's Law or registration of sex offenders is a program created out of crisis and horror. On July 29, 1994 in Hamilton Township, New Jersey Megan Kanka was murdered. In Megan's neighborhood lived a sex offender named Jesse Timmendequas. He lived across the street from Megan. On this day Megan was heading home and right before she made it to her front door Timmendequas invited her into his house. He asked her if she wanted to see his puppy. He led her to an upstairs bedroom and strangled her unconscious with his belt. He raped her and the suffocated her with a plastic bag. When he was done, he put her in a tool box and dumped her in a local park. After this occurred, exactly three months on October 31, 1994, the governor of New Jersey passed Megan's law. It has been challenged by some a sex offender in the case Artway v New Jersey. Artway argued that his constitutional rights had been violated. He felt that this law was Ex Post Facto, after the fact. He also said that it was cruel a nd unusual punishment, double jeopardy, and violated his right to privacy. In that decision the notification was ruled to be unconstitutional. But the act itself of registration was constitutional. When one starts to look into this law not much, is written. What can be found are many articles saying what the critics think will happen. Things that are discussed are the Ex Post Facto law, and the constitutionality. The fact is this law will work. When put into place it will keep sex offenders away from children and keep them out of your neighborhood. The problem is that the outcome is not really understood. Some

a major health issue and is often recognised as one of the major causes of avoidable mortality and morbidity in Western society The WritePass Journal

a major health issue and is often recognised as one of the major causes of avoidable mortality and morbidity in Western society 1.   Introduction a major health issue and is often recognised as one of the major causes of avoidable mortality and morbidity in Western society 1.   Introduction2.   ConclusionRelated 1.   Introduction Alcohol consumption is acknowledged worldwide as a major health issue and is often recognised as one of the major causes of avoidable mortality and morbidity in Western society (Wechsler, Dowdall, Davenport, Castillo, 1995). Almost 4% of all deaths are attributed to alcohol (World Health Organization, 2009) and in relation to other causes of death, alcohol can be considered as a significantly higher contributor. For example, HIV/AIDS accounted for 3.5% of deaths worldwide, violence for 1% and tuberculosis for 2.5% (World Health Organization, 2004). This is reflected in increased cost for health care systems. In 2008, it was estimated that alcohol harm cost the National Health Service in England  £2.7 billion, this was a significant increase from estimates for 2003 of  £1.7 billion (National Health Service, 2010). The harmful effects of high alcohol intake have been well documented (Hingson, Heeren, Winter, Wechsler, 2005) (Schulenberg, Wadsworth, OMalley, Bachman, Johnston, 1996). Individuals who drink too much can suffer from physical problems, such as liver cirrhosis, heart failure and certain cancers, but also from social issues, such as interpersonal violence, sexual assault, vandalism, and driving accidents (Anderson Baumberg, 2006) (Rehm, Room, Graham, Monteiro, Gmel, Sempos, 2003). Definitions of alcohol abuse have also focused on social issues related to drinking; the Diagnostic and Statistical manual of Mental disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2000) defines abuse as â€Å"a maladaptive pattern of substance use leading to clinically significant impairment or distress, often manifested as a failure to fulfil obligations, use in physically hazardous situations and related legal, social or interpersonal problems†. The Government recommends that adult men should not regularly drink more than 3-4 units of alcohol per day and adult women should not regularly drink more than 2-3 units a day. However, in Great Britain, 31% of men and 20% women drink more than the advised weekly limits. Furthermore, 8% of men and 2% of women drink above the levels regarded as harmful, namely 50 units a week for men and 35 units for women (Office of National Statistics, 2008). Age is an important variable contributing to alcohol consumption, with the highest intake recorded in young adults (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2004) particularly in those between 18 and 20 years old (May, 1992) (Webb, Ashton, Kelly, Kamali, 1996). Drinking as a young adult has significant health consequences (Ham Hope, 2003). The prevalence of drinking amongst young people does not only pose serious issues to the young people involved, but the consequences of their drinking can also have an effect on a their family and society as a whole (Oei Morawska, 2004). Alcohol consumption is a significantly greater problem within the student population because alcohol forms part of the university culture (Crundall, 1995). Drunken behaviour is accepted as normal at many student events (Davey Clark, 1991). It has been found that alcohol is the most likely substance to be abused amongst the student population (Prendergast, 1994) and in comparison to non-university peers worldwide, students engage in riskier alcohol-related behaviour (Johnston, OMalley, Bachman, 2001) (OMalley Johnston, 2002) (Wiki, Kuntsche, Gmel, 2010) (Kypri, Cronin, Wright, 2005), drink more heavily (Kypri, Cronin, Wright, 2005) (Dawson, Grant, Stinson, Chou, 2004) and exhibit more clinically significant alcohol-related problems (Slutske, 2005). It has been recorded that student consumption of alcohol is consistent with the rates of the general population in the UK, which is estimated to include 90% of adults consuming alcohol weekly (Department of Health, 2003). However, the amount of alcohol that is consumed by students has been suggested to pose significant risks. Sociability has been identified as the major benefit to alcohol use. Specifically young people indicated that the reasons why they drink are for fun, to be happy, to gain confidence, to be cool and simply for something to do (Oei Morawska, 2004). However, for students, hangovers were featured as the most negative aspect of drinking large amounts rather than longer term risks (Crundall, 1995). The students are also aware of the negative impact alcohol can have on their studies and finances (Bewick, Mulhern, Barkham, Trusler, Hill, Stiles, 2008). In America, one third of students were classified as suffering from alcohol abuse according to the DSM-IV-TR definition (as stated above) (Clements, 1999) and 6% reported symptoms of alcohol dependence (Knight, Wechsler, Kuo, Seibring, Weitzman, Schuckit, 2002). Fewer than 4% of those students who met the DSM-IV-TR criteria for alcohol abuse or dependence were found to be willingly to pursue treatment (Clements, 1999) (OHare, 1997). Within the United Kingdom, a review of studies measuring undergraduate drinking concluded that 52% of men and 43% of women reported drinking above the recommended limits (Gill, 2002). Webb, Ashton, Kelly, Kamali (1996) also found that 15% of a UK student sample drank at hazardous levels. For men this exceeded 51 units per week and 36 units for women. Increased alcohol consumption and binge drinking are not only related to health issues, but also could result in negative consequences for the individual, such as academic failure, unintended pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases, property damage, and criminal consequences that jeopardize future job prospects (Berkowitz Perkins, 1986) (Hingson, Heeran, Zakocs, Kopstein, Wechsler, 2002) (Wechsler, Dowdall, Davenport, Castillo, 1995). Students do not only experience consequences of their own drinking but often experience consequences of others drinking (Rhodes, et al., 2009). In addition to harmful effects on the individual, there are second-hand consequences for fellow students, ranging from disrupted study and sleep, to physical and sexual assault (Donovan, Jessor, Costa, 1993) (Hingson, Heeran, Zakocs, Kopstein, Wechsler, 2002) (Perkins, 2002) making students more at risk of negative consequences from alcohol consumption. The hazardous consequences of binge drinking felt by many students arise from the disabling effects of consuming a large amount of alcohol over a short period (Oei Morawska, 2004). The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism advisory council approved the following definition for binge drinking: â€Å"A ‘binge’ is a pattern of drinking alcohol that brings blood alcohol content to about 0.08 gram-per cent or above. For the typical adult, this pattern corresponds to consuming 5 or more drinks (male), or 4 or more drinks (female) in about 2 hours† (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 2004). Adams, Barry, and Fleming (1996) identified that while the number of drinks consumed per occasion was an important risk factor for death from injury, but that frequency of consumption was not. Binge drinking students are more likely to suffer from negative consequences related to than non-bingers such as academic problems, engage in high risk sex, sustai n injuries, overdose on alcohol and drive while intoxicated (Wechsler, Dowdall, Davenport, Castillo, 1995) (Wechsler, Lee, Kuo, Lee, 2000) (Wechsler, Kuo, Seibring, Nelson, Lee, 2002) (Jennison, 2004) (Vik, Carrello, Tate, Field, 2000). Despite negative alcohol effects, research suggests that a large proportion of students are placing themselves at risk by engaging in binge drinking. There are notable gender differences in binge drinking, as women are more likely to initiate drinking when they feel angry or worthless and as an escape from their troubles. On the other hand, for men incentives are to gain peer approval or not to show fear (Oei Morawska, 2004). In Europe, Kuntsche, Rehm, Gmel (2004) concluded that men were more likely to binge drink and that peer pressure was one of the strongest influencing factors. Similar findings have been reported for UK undergraduates, (Wechsler, Dowdall, Davenport, Rimm, 1995) recorded 50% of male students to be binge drinking (around 8 UK units per session) and 39% of women (≈6.5 units) at least once in the preceding fortnight. Pickard et al (2000) also found that 50% of men binge drink. However, they found more women were likely to binge drinking (63%). Research suggests that heavy drinking among students is most likely to occur in positive social contexts as opposed to negative contexts (Carey, 1995) (Carey, 1993). There are again gender differences in these consumption patterns. For example, University men tend to drink more often than their female peers in positive situations, such as those involving cues to drink and pleasant times with friends (Carrigan, Samoluk, Stewart, 1998). Other findings suggest that social contexts can discriminate between heavier and lighter male student drinkers, whereas the strongest predictor of discrimination between heavier and lighter drinking university women is emotional pain (Thombs, Beck, Mahoney, 1995). Such gender differences suggest that drinking behaviour may be motivated by different subjective beliefs regarding the consequences of alcohol consumption for men and women. The beliefs people hold about the effects of consuming alcohol are referred to as alcohol outcome expectancies (AOE) (Goldman, Del Boca, Darkes, 1999) and include areas such as assertion, affective change and tension reduction (Young, Connor, Ricciardelli, Saunders, 2006). According to social-learning theory, drinking is a goal-directed behaviour that ranges from abstinence to alcohol dependence, and the initiation, maintenance, and development of drinking patterns is assumed to be directed by similar learning principles (Abrams Niaura, 1987) (Bandura, 1969) (Jones, Corbin, Fromme, 2001) (Maisto, Carey, Bradizza, 1999). Within this theoretical framework, alcohol outcome expectancies are considered to be critical determinants of different consumption patterns and a result of indirect and direct drinking experiences. These beliefs are particularly important when experiences with alcohol are less developed. For instance, young childrens expectancies of alcohol are best described as indeterminate and diffuse and their beliefs â€Å"crystallize† with age (Miller, Smith, Goldman, 1990). These expectancies influence not only present behaviour, but also the perceptions of later experiences with alcohol, which may strengthen the original expectancies (Oei Morawska, 2004). AOE have been shown to be better predictors of various drinking patterns that demographics and background variables (Brown, 1985) (Christiansen Goldman, 1983). Expectancies have consistently been found to be associated with current alcohol consumption in students (Leigh Stacy, 1993), community samples (Brown, Goldman, Inn, Anderson, 1980) and adolescents (Christiansen, Smith, Roehling, Goldman, 1989). Expectancies were found to predict future drinking in adolescents after 1 year (Christiansen, Smith, Roehling, Goldman, 1989), 2 years (Smith, Goldman, Greenbaum, Christiansen, 1995) and 9 years (Stacy, Newcomb, Bentler, 1991). Research has shown that individuals with positive alcohol expectancies drink more alcohol and are at risk of misusing alcohol (Connor, Young, Williams, Ricciardelli, 2000) (Young Oei, 1996). Other research has provided evidence that expectancies partially mediate other variables (e.g. temperament, alcohol knowledge, etc.) that influence alcohol consumption (Smith, Goldman, Greenbaum, Christiansen, 1995) (Kline, 1996) (Scheier Botvin, 1997), the extent to which other variables influence drinking through expectancy ranges between 17% and 50% (Greenbaum, Brown, Friedman, 1995). The belief about alcohol’s power to change behaviour, rather than its true physical effects determine the behavioural effects of alcohol (Leigh, 1989) and also expectancies concerning the use of may operate differently in different social situations (Bot, Engels, Knibbe, 2005). Lee, Greely, and Oei (1999) found that drinking was related not only to positive expectancies, but also to negative expectancies regarding its effects and it is now well established that people hold both positive and negative alcohol-related expectancies (Fromme, Stroot, Kaplan, 1993) (Leigh Stacy, 1993) (Chen, Grube, Madden, 1994) (McMahon, Jones, ODonnell, 1994). Positive alcohol outcome expectancies refer to peoples’ motives for drinking and their perceptions of the positive outcomes associated with drinking alcohol. They have been shown to be causally related to alcohol consumption in both adults and adolescents (Christiansen, Smith, Roehling, Goldman, 1989) (Dunn Goldman, 1998) (Smith, Goldman, Greenbaum, Christiansen, 1995) and also to problem drinking (Lewis ONeil, 2000). Negative expectancies refer to peoples’ motives to abstain from drinking alcohol or to limit consumption. Earleywine (1995) found that only positive, not negative, expectancies were related to intentions to drink and drinking behaviour. However, Werner (1993) found both positive and negative outcome expectancies and their subjective evaluations accounted for a significant portion of the variability in drinking patterns and health problems reported by students. Further support has been found, using a variety of different instruments, that negative expec tancies significantly improve the ability to predict current drinking (Fromme, Stroot, Kaplan, 1993) (Leigh Stacy, 1993) (McMahon, Jones, ODonnell, 1994). These inconsistent findings might be attributable to different explanations of negative expectancies. For example, Leigh (1989) suggested that expectancies can separated into short-term, direct effects and longer-term negative effects of drinking. The comparison between positive and negative expectancies is also confounded by the fact that the expected positive effects are more proximal than the expected negative effects. For example, positive expectations, such as feeling more sociable, happen at the time of drinking compared to negative expectations (such as hangovers) which happen as a consequence of drinking. These expectancies follow the pattern of actual alcohol effects (Earleywine Martin, 1993). While the vast majority of research has focused on participants’ expectancies for the effect alcohol has on themselves, the alcohol-related expectancies that a person has for others have been shown to influence drinking behaviour as well (Borjesson Dunn, 2001). Participants consistently expected alcohol to affect other people more than themselves for both positive effects (such as social or sexual enjoyment) and negative effects, such as impairment. However, moderate and heavy drinkers expected as much social/physical pleasure from alcohol as they expected others to receive (Rohsenow, 1983). Men expected themselves to become calmer and happier in comparison to others when drinking, but also that others would become more disinhibited and to generally misbehave compared to themselves (Gustafson, 1989). Sher, Walitzer, Wood, Brent (1991) found that men reported significantly stronger outcome expectancies than women for social lubrication, activity enhancement, and performance e nhancement in other women. These findings were replicated with a separate sample of men and women in a subsequent longitudinal study (Sher, Wood, Wood, Raskin, 1996). This study is aimed to investigate the relationship between participants AOEs and those they hold for their friends further in a student population. It is, also, aimed to investigate the relationship between AOEs and alcohol consumption. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) is a simple ten-question test developed by the World Health Organization as a simple method of screening for excessive drinking. The first edition of this manual was published in 1989 and was subsequently updated in 1992. Questions 1 to 3 concern alcohol consumption, 4 to 6 relate to alcohol dependence and 7 to 10 consider alcohol related problems. A score of more than 8 for men or more than 7 for women indicates a strong likelihood of hazardous alcohol consumption and a score of 20 or more is suggestive of alcohol dependence. Alcohol outcome expectancies were measured using the Comprehensive Effects of Alcohol Questionnaire (CEOA) (Fromme Stroot, 1993). This questionnaire assesses both positive and negative discrete expectancies of alcohols effects on physiological, psychological, and behavioural outcomes. Participants rated 38 items on a fours of positive outcome expectancy items include: I would feel energetic or I would feel unafraid. Examples of negative outcome expectancy items include: â€Å"I would be clumsy;† â€Å"I would take risks† or â€Å"I would feel guilty†. Scores for expected outcomes are determined by summing relevant subscale responses, allowing two overall scores to be calculated for each participant: positive expectations, negative expectations, and a total score for all expectations. The CEOA was found to have adequate internal consistency and temporal stability, and criterion and construct validity in a student sample (Fromme Stroot, 1993). For the purpose of the present experiment, individual alcohol outcome expectancies were assessed using the standard CEOA questionnaire, additionally, participants were asked to respond to CEOA items on the basis of answering for a chosen friend. Examples of friend’s outcome expectancy items included: â€Å"They would act sociably† or â€Å"Their senses would be dulledâ€Å". This study found no significant differences in gender in AUDIT scores. Therefore the null hypothesis can be accepted. With regards to gender and alcohol consumption, findings from this study found only slight but non-significant differences between the consumption of men and women, with women drinking only slightly more than men. Although similar results were found in the study by (Labrie, Migliuri, Kenney, Lac, 2010), their study was focused on participants with a family history of excessive alcohol consumption. It was only within participants with a family history of excessive alcohol consumption that gender differences were found. The findings in the present study were inconsistent with the findings of (Prendergast, 1994) who found it more likely for men to abuse alcohol than women. However, this study was a review of previous literature (1980 to 1994) and more recent research evidence would suggest that gender differences are decreasing (Keyesa, Grantic, Hasin, 2007). In additi on, this study used an American sample and findings may not be applicable to those in the UK. This suggests that women are at greater risk of alcohol disorders, with 6.4% of men compared to 11.3% of women identified as being dependent on alcohol according to AUDIT score. In comparison to the general population men in this study were less likely to be classed as drinking above hazardous levels (8% vs. 6.4%) whereas many more women were drinking at these levels (2% vs. 11.3%) (Office of National Statistics, 2008). This suggests that the population used in this study is not representative of the general population in regards to dependent levels of drinking which could result in unique findings. Participant’s alcohol expectations were found to significantly affect AUDIT score and therefore we can reject the null hypothesis. This is similar to the results of (Leigh Stacy, 1993). It was also found that positive and negative outcome expectancies accounted for a significant portion of the variability in drinking patterns, similarly to other previous research (Werner, Walker, Greene, 1993). As with previous research, it has been found that increased positive AOEs relate to higher consumption. Alternatively, in this sample, negative AOEs also appear to be related to increased alcohol consumption. It has been suggested that positive expectancies are immediately accessible and therefore contribute to initiation of alcohol use. Whereas, negative expectancies are delayed and shaped by subsequent drinking, therefore their influence may be related to persistent drinking (Sher, Wood, Wood, Raskin, 1996) (Bauman, Fisher, Bryan, Chenoweth, 1985) (Kuntsche, Knibbe, Engels, Gmel, 2007). In this study, participants were drawing on memories of drinking experience to shape their expectancies. This could have allowed them to evaluate AOEs equally, with proximal and distal effects playing a less important role. The findings underscore the importance of attitudes and strength of beliefs, particularly in identifying those at high risk for problem drinking and adverse health consequences. A multiple regression indicated that a person’s AOEs for the Risk and Aggression subscale are a significant predictor of AUDIT score and also expectancies explained 21.6% of the variance in scores. This appears consistent with the findings of Fromme and D’Amico (2000) who found AOEs explained 28% of the variance in quantity of alcohol consumed, and 15% of the variance in frequency of drinking. Ham, Stewart, Norton, Hope (2005) found the Risk and Aggression subscale of AOEs to be related to alcohol consumption in adolescents, specifically drinks per week. However, they found this was not the only subscale related to alcohol consumption but also an association was found with Liquid Courage, Sociability and Sexuality expectations. Alcohol consumptions relationship with expectancies seems to be especially true for the expectancies of both physical and social pleasure, relaxation and tension reduction and possibly enhanced sexual functioning (Gustafson, 1989).   This sugg ests that the relationship between expectancies and AUDIT score is mediated by the population being studied and what is specifically been measured. Due to different measures of expectancies it is difficult to compare results directly. Measurements can relate to a range of expectancies; from general expectancies to specific expectancies. This is also true for measures of alcohol consumption. The AUDIT does not only address participant’s consumption but also alcohol dependence and alcohol related problems.   It is also possible that some drinkers use expectancies as a justification for drinking, rather than solely associated with drinking. Gustafson (1989) found a positive correlation between the strength of expectancies and how desirable it was rated as an outcome of drinking. Therefore people could be drinking to achieve expectations rather than expecting certain consequences of drinking. A logistic regression indicated that the Sexuality, Risk and Aggression, and Self-Perception subscales reliably predicted using alcohol at risky levels. Expectancies explained between 22.3% and 32% of the variance in risk classification, and 83% of the predictions were correct. Ham, Stewart, Norton, Hope (2005) found that 44% of the variance in high level drinking to be attributed to AOEs. This higher level could be due to the sample population used in the study. For the current sample, there were no effects of AOEs on AUDIT score for men (see below), and therefore the variance in risk classification reflects upon women’s expectations for alcohol.   Similarly this could explain why Ham, Stewart, Norton and Hope (2005)   found that greater the expectancies for Self-Perception and Cognitive and Behavioural Impairment, the more likely participants were to have alcohol related problems, this was consistent with findings of Lee, Greely, Oei (1999). Also Gustafson (1989) found that high consumers have stronger AOE and that all expectancies, bar Sexuality, were related to higher levels of alcohol consumption. These results suggest that certain expectancies are related to risky drinking, however, the expectancies that reliably predict risk is determined by the population that is being investigated. Further to this, some research has found that expectancies did not appear to be related to consumption in problem drinkers (Oei, Fergusson, Lee, 1998) this suggest that further research needs to be conducted into the relationship between level of alcohol consumption and AOEs. There was no effect of AOEs on AUDIT score for men. However, there was an effect for women, therefore we can reject the null hypothesis. This does not follow previous research as it has been found expectations that alcohol would improve social situations had the highest correlations with actual alcohol use in men. Men alcohol use corresponded to the belief that men in general have positive personality changes due to drinking, and that men drink to relieve social anxiety (Borjesson Dunn, 2001). These findings appear inconsistent with research by (Brown, Goldman, Inn, Anderson, 1980), who found that women expected more positive social consequences from drinking alcohol, whereas men were more likely to expect potentially aggressive behaviour and more negative expectations. This difference could be because of gender differences within the population used. Although the sample population is similar to the UK populations with more men than women (UK; 51% women, Study; 62% women) (Office o f National Statistics, 2008), it is inconsistent with that of Loughborough University (62% men) (The Complete University Guide, 2011). The choice of women to attend a predominantly male University may have affected the results as University choice may be determined by personal characteristics and lifestyle choices. There was a relationship between participants and friends AOEs, specifically for the same type of expectations (positive to positive and negative to negative), and therefore the null hypothesis can be rejected. A modified version of the CEOA was used to identify friend’s expectations and therefore its individual validity and reliability has not been tested. This means that the data can only be indicative of a relationship, but similar results have been found before (Rohsenow, 1983). Participants expected alcohol to affect other people more than themselves. However, this was more pronounced for negative effects. People typically drink more or less in response to the consumption rates of others in their drinking environment (Caudill Marlatt, 1975) (Lied Marlatt, 1979), especially when people are friendly (Collins, Parks, Marlatt, 1985). The belief that others will experience more AOEs effects than themselves, a person’s own alcohol consumption could be effected. Indivi duals could be drinking more than to others because they underestimate the effect alcohol is having on themselves in regards to others. Research has identified social context and peer influence as risk factors for problematic student drinking (Ham Hope, 2003). The current study is limited because it does not investigate the relationship of specific expectancy subscales. It has previously been found, however, that, others who consumed large amounts of alcohol were seen as more relaxed, less inhibited, more aggressive, and less attractive than those who drank none or little (Edgar Knight, 1994). And those who themselves drank less were more likely to expect others to become more aggressive and relaxed than their moderate or heavy drinking counterparts (Rohsenow, 1983). When looking at different levels of alcohol consumption, it was found that there was no relationship between participants and friends expectations for those not drinking at risky levels. For those classified as hazardous drinkers there was only a relationship between the same type of expectancies (positive and positive, negative and negative). In opposition to this there was a relationship between opposite expectations for those classified as dependent drinkers. Therefore the null hypothesis can be rejected. Alcohol expectancies have been shown to correlate with all levels of drinking (Goldman, 1999).   The lack of defining an specific amount of alcohol in this study, instead specifying to base assumptions on a friend consuming the same amount as the participant, could have affected the results. Therefore those drinking low levels of alcohol are also rating their friends drinking low levels which may not be representative of normal drinking. Those drinking at dependent levels may h ave been more aware of drinking large amounts because they had previously completed the AUDIT. Specifically those drinking at dependent levels expected that their friends would have more negative expectations than themselves. Students are suggested to be aware of the negative consequences of drinking (Bewick, Mulhern, Barkham, Trusler, Hill, Stiles, 2008), but choose to ignore them in relation to their own drinking. More research needs to be conducted into the relationship between this relationship, specifically in respect to reducing high drinking levels by making people fully aware of the negative effects of drinking. There was no overall significant effects of men expectations for their self and friends expectations, however there was an effect of positive AOEs on friends positive AOEs. For women there was an effect of total expectations on friends expectations, specifically participants own negative AOEs and friends negative AOEs. Therefore the null hypothesis can be rejected. Expectancies of alcohol use are theorised to develop through learning from repeated experience with alcohol, either personally or observed. Therefore, an individual’s own perception of the consequences of drinking becomes an important factor in the associations (Bauman, Fisher, Bryan, Chenoweth, 1985) (Jones McMahon, 1992). In most cultures and societies, one of the most secure observations is that consequences surrounding consumption are tolerated more in men than in women (McMahon, Jones, ODonnell, 1994). This suggests that alcohol behaviours would generally be judged more by the individual if they were female than if they were male. These differences could be due to the population being sampled with women being less influenced by the way alcohol behaviour is perceived. Also it has been observed that women in the population score higher on the AUDIT than men, contrary to that of the general population. It is important that future research takes into account other variables that affect the relationship between alcohol use and AOEs. This can then be used to better understand of why so many people drink risky levels despite the knowledge that it can be harmful. Specifically it is suggested that the desirability of AOEs is an important factor in understanding the relationship of expectancies to drinking (Leigh, 1987). 2.   Conclusion The aim of this study was to investigate relationship between participants AOEs and those they hold for their friends in a student population. It was, also, aimed to investigate the relationship between AOEs and alcohol consumption. Participant’s AOEs were found to significantly affect AUDIT score (F(46,71) = 1.651, p 0.005, partial ÃŽ ·Ã‚ ² = 0.517). There was no effect of AOEs on AUDIT score for men(F(31,15) = 0.821, p = 0.690, partial ÃŽ ·Ã‚ ² = 0.629). However, there was an effect for women (F(36,34) = 1.818, p 0.05, partial ÃŽ ·Ã‚ ² = 0.658). There was a relationship between participants and friends AOEs (F(46,71) = 3.009, p 0.005, partial ÃŽ ·Ã‚ ² = 0.661). The findings of the present study are consistent with previous studies that have shown AOEs to be significant predictors of alcohol consumption (Fromme, Stroot, Kaplan, 1993). This highlights the importance of investigating the effects of AOEs within specific populations, and how AOEs can be controlled to effect alcohol consumption.

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon According to legend, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, considered one  of the  seven Ancient Wonders of the  World,  were built in the 6th century BCE by King Nebuchadnezzar II for his homesick wife, Amytis. As a Persian princess, Amytis missed the wooded mountains of her youth and thus Nebuchadnezzar built her an oasis in the desert, a building covered with exotic trees and plants,  tiered so  that it  resembled a mountain. The only problem is that archaeologists are not sure that the Hanging Gardens ever really existed. Nebuchadnezzar II and Babylon The city of Babylon was founded around 2300 BCE, or even earlier,  near the  Euphrates River just south of the modern city of Baghdad in  Iraq. Since it was located in the desert, it was built almost entirely out of mud-dried bricks. Since bricks are so easily broken, the city was destroyed a number of times in its history. In the 7th century BCE, Babylonians revolted against their Assyrian ruler. In an attempt to make an example of them, Assyrian King Sennacherib  razed the city of Babylon, completely destroying it.  Eight years later, King Sennacherib was assassinated by his three sons. Interestingly,  one of these sons ordered the reconstruction of Babylon. It wasnt long before Babylon was  once again flourishing and known as a center of learning and culture. It was Nebuchadnezzars father, King Nabopolassar, that liberated Babylon from Assyrian rule. When Nebuchadnezzar II became king in 605 BCE, he was handed a healthy realm, but he wanted more. Nebuchadnezzar  wanted to expand his kingdom in order to make it one of the most powerful city-states of the time. He fought  the Egyptians and the Assyrians and won. He also made  an alliance with the king of Media by marrying his daughter. With these conquests came the spoils of war to which Nebuchadnezzar, during the course of  his 43-year reign,  used to enhance the city of Babylon. He built an enormous ziggurat, the temple of Marduk (Marduk was Babylons patron god). He also built a massive wall around the city, said to be 80 feet thick, wide enough for four-horse chariots to race on. These walls were so large and grand, especially the Ishtar Gate,  that they too were considered one of the Seven Ancient Wonders of the World until they were bumped off the list by the Lighthouse in Alexandria. Despite these other awesome creations, it was the Hanging Gardens that captured  peoples imagination and remained one of the Wonders of the Ancient World. What Did the Hanging Gardens of Babylon Look Like? It may seem surprising how little we know about the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. First, we dont know exactly where it was located. It is said to have been placed close to the Euphrates River for access to water and yet no archeological evidence has been found to prove its exact location. It  remains the only Ancient Wonder whose location has not yet  been found. According to legend, King Nebuchadnezzar II built the Hanging Gardens for his wife Amytis, who missed the cool temperatures, mountainous terrain,  and  beautiful scenery of her homeland in Persia. In comparison, her hot, flat, and dusty new home of Babylon must have seemed completely drab. It is believed that the Hanging Gardens was a tall building, built upon stone (extremely rare for the area), that in some way resembled a mountain, perhaps by having multiple terraces. Located on top of and overhanging the walls (hence the term hanging gardens) were numerous and varied plants and trees. Keeping these exotic plants alive in a desert took a massive amount of water. Thus,  it is said, some sort of engine pumped water up through the building from either a well located below or directly from the river. Amytis could then walk through the rooms of the building, being cooled by the shade as well as the water-tinged air. Didthe Hanging Gardens Ever Really Exist? There is still much debate about the existence of the Hanging Gardens. The Hanging Gardens seem magical in a way, too amazing to have been real. Yet, so many of the other seemingly-unreal structures of Babylon  have been found by archaeologists and proven  to  have really existed. Yet the Hanging Gardens remains aloof. Some archaeologists believe that remains of the ancient structure have been found in the ruins of Babylon. The problem is that these remains are not near the Euphrates River as some descriptions have specified. Also, there is no mention of the Hanging Gardens in any contemporary Babylonian writings. This leads some to believe that the Hanging Gardens were a myth, described only by Greek writers after the fall of Babylon. A new theory, proposed by Dr. Stephanie Dalley of Oxford University, states that there was a mistake made in the past and that the Hanging Gardens were not located in Babylon; instead, they were located in the northern Assyrian city of Ninevah and were built by King Sennacherib. The confusion could have been caused because Ninevah was, at one time,  known as New Babylon. Unfortunately, the ancient ruins of Ninevah are located in a contested and thus dangerous part of Iraq and thus, at least for now, excavations are impossible to conduct. Perhaps one day, we will know the truth about the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.

Egoism and relativism Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Egoism and relativism - Assignment Example as certainty associated with it because it promotes that individuals should take actions that provide the highest degree of happiness to oneself and the individual should try to avoid actions and decisions that result in unhappiness. The element of certainty exists because an individual can easily be sure about the elements and the outcomes that will make him or her happy and unhappy and thus can easily make decisions. For example: as an individual I may lie to another individual if I perceive that in a given situation lying will result in higher benefits to me as compared to costs. The main weakness associated with egoism is that it ignores the fact that other individuals within a society may end up being impacted negatively if an individual only makes decisions based on his/her self-interest. This means that egoism disregards the idea that those actions are ethical that result in benefiting the overall society and not just a few individuals within the society. For example: a stock exchange agent may lie to its clients that investing in a certain share will benefit them when actually it may result in losses. This means that the agent is hurting others by lying and only benefiting himself in terms of commission he earns from selling certain stocks. The theory of relativism states that actions as well as decisions that may be ethical for a particular society are not necessarily ethical for another society or group (Birsch 18). Relativists are of the position that no actions and decisions are universally ethical or unethical and vary in compliance from one society to another. One of the major strengths of relativism is that it promotes tolerance between different groups and well as different members of these groups (Birsch 28). The theory holds that one cannot simply reject the values of another society or culture if those values are conflicting with values of people from their own society. This in turns helps in ensuring that members from different societies