Stress and Illness A Review of Literature

Question: Discuss a review of literature on stress and illness? Answer: Stress is a condition which put the functioning of different organs of the human body at stake. In the past and in recent years extensive research studies have been conducted on the effects of stress on the human body and on the mental processes of human beings. Most of the studies conducted on stress have found that there is a complex relationship between stress and the development of certain ailments in individuals suffering from excessive stress. Though more research studies are required to establish an explicit relationship between stress and diseases like cardiovascular diseases, the present literature on the topic of concern has emphasized the fact that there is a relationship between stressors and the development of certain diseases. Considering the evidential nature of the literature available on the topic of stress, it can be said that, stress causes illness and such illness encompasses diseases like deterioration of the immunity system and cardiovascular diseases. Stress is the bodys response to any sort of demand for change and often it is caused by both good and bad experiences (Mountain State Centers for Independent Living, n.d.). As a natural reaction to stress the human body secretes some specific chemicals and this secretion sometimes makes the body vulnerable to certain ailments. Psychological effects of excessive stress can be detrimental to the wellbeing of the person experiencing chronic stress. The fight or flight instinctive response is usual in cases of coping with stress and in the course of such response some chemical changes take place within the body which can either provide some short-lived benefits or can give rise to some specific illnesses in the long run (PBS, 2011). Considering the definitions of stress it can be said that, stress is a physiological response to a stressor, or an adverse circumstance in the environment leading to sympathetic nervous system activation, commonly known as the fight-or-flight response (Keefer , 2008). Stress also denotes the bodys way of responding to any kind of threat (Segal et al., 2015). When an individual feels threatened, his/her nervous system starts responding to the threat by releasing specific hormones that are meant for helping the body cope with stress and such hormones include adrenaline and cortisol hormones which help the body to safeguard vital functions in emergency conditions (Segal et al., 2015). Stress increases the rate of functioning of some specific organs in the human body and this includes sudden increase in the heartbeat instigating forceful blood flow which can put the life of certain individuals at stake. Research studies have also found that the release of certain chemicals within the human body in the course of experiencing stress can thoroughly diminish the immunity system of the human body paving the way for the intrusion of specific illnesses. Stress deteriorates the immunity system of human body and this gives rise to some other diseases. In the article, Psychological Stress and the Human Immune System: A Meta-Analytic Study of 30 Years of Inquiry, Suzanne C. Segerstrom and Gregory E. Miller (2004) have stressed on the relationship between stress and illnesses. Conducting a meta-analysis of more than 300 empirical articles discussing the relationship between psychological stress and the deterioration of human immunity system, Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have concluded that excessive stress often results in down-regulation of some specific immunity functions. Chronic stressors, according to Segerstrom and Miller (2004) are responsible for suppressing both cellular and humoral im munity and this may result in the development of some specific illnesses. Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have also stated that in the course of coping with chronic stress, individuals are often faced with the problem of deteriorated immunity system and age and other physical vulnerabilities often add to the process of deterioration making the emergence of some specific illnesses imminent. Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have pointed out, referring to the research studies conducted in the past on the relationship between psychological stress and illness, that, due to stress, sympathetic fibers may descend from the brain and may get infused in bone marrow, thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes and as these fibers have the potential to release a wide variety of substances influencing the immune responses, it can be said that there is a relationship between stress and the immune response. Moreover, there is a behavioral perspective of such relationship too. Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have cited that during stressful events some individuals tend to get engaged in certain behaviors like alcohol use which again can deteriorate the immune system of the body making it easy for viruses and bacteria to enter the body and cause diseases. Considering this relationship between stress and illnesses, Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have stated that behavior should be considered as a pathway that links stress with the immune system. Segerstrom and Millers findings can be related to the information provided by American Heart Association. The American Heart Association (2014) has revealed that, though much more research work is needed to establish a direct relationship between stress and cardiovascular disorders, there are ample evidences to prove the fact that stress gives rise to behaviors which, if sustained for long, can surely contribute to the development of cardiovascular diseases. In this regard the American Heart Association (2014) has revealed that fact that, stress may affect behaviors and factors that increase heart disease risk: high blood pressure and cholesterol levels, smoking, physical inactivity and overeating. The American Heart Association (2014) has also revealed that, Some people may choose to drink too much alcohol or smoke cigarette to manage their chronic stress, however these habits can increase blood pressure and may damage artery walls. Referring to studies conducted by Marshall et al. and Chiappelli et al. in 1998 and 1994 respectively, Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have stated that chronic stress has the potential to alter the patterns of cytokine secretion and this causes the suppression of Th1 cytokines which are responsible for activating cellular immunity which is meant for providing defense agains several kinds of infection and some specific kinds of neoplastic diseases. As a result of such alteration and suppression the body becomes vulnerable to illnesses. Moreover, Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have also pointed out that such suppression renders permissive effects on the production of Th2 cytokines which have the potential to activate humoral immunity and to instigate allergy and several other autoimmune diseases. Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have also stated that as such shift occurs via the effects of stress hormones such as cortisol, there is inevitably a relationship between stress and immunity-related illnesses. Amplifying the negative impact of stres s on human body and on the human immunity system, Segerstrom and Miller (2004) have pointed out how stress can give rise to autoimmune diseases in the course of which the immune system starts treating self-tissues as invaders and starts attacking them causing pathological conditions such as multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, Crohns disease and several other related diseases. In the article, Reconsidering the methodology of stress research in inflammatory bowel disease, Laurie Keefer, Ali Keshavarzian, and Ece Mutlu (2008) have emphasized the research studies conducted on the relationship between stress and inflammatory bowel disease. Focusing on present literature on the relationship between stress and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), Keefer et al.(2008) have stated that, stress plays a direct role in the pathophysiology of IBD. Environmental stress, according to Keefer et al. (2004) plays an important role in enhancing IBD and though not explicitly proven due to some specific constraints, the fact that stress can instigate illnesses remains a truth. Apart from emphasizing on the relationship between stress and IBD, several research studies have also stressed the important role played by psychological stress in instigating cardiovascular diseases. Whether or not acute life event stressors play significant role in triggering coronary heart disease is a fact that needs to be researched and evaluated more, but present literature on the relationship between stress and cardiovascular diseases have hinted on the fact that acute life event stressors can actually trigger coronary heart disease (CHD) events (Bunker et al., 2003). It is to be noted in this regard that, Although the deleterious physiological effects of acute stressors as CHD triggers are well documented, the role of chronic stressors in CHD onset and prognosis remains unclear. But this doesnt mean that there is scarcity of research studies emphasizing the relationship between stress and cardiovascular diseases. In the research article, Psychological stress and cardiovascular disease: empirical demonstration of bias in a prospective observational study of Scottish men, Macleod et al. (2002) have emphasized the relationship between psychological stress and cardiovascular d iseases. Macleod et al. (2002) have concluded that there is a weak positive association between angina admissions and stress, but there is a more strongly positive association between stress and cardiovascular conditions where admission was likely to be, to a substantial degree, discretionary or when diagnostic classification reflected non-specific symptoms or signs. Even though Macleod et al. have remained inconclusive about the direct relationship between stress and different cardiovascular diseases, it must be said that stress is directly related to heart attacks and some other critical cardiovascular diseases. Stress causes angina, hypertension, arrhythmia, and several other heart-related problems, and if these problems sustain for long, an individuals life may be at stake. Stress itself is a problem and it raises an individuals blood pressure which is not good for the body and it is also not good for the body to get exposed to stress hormones on a continuous basis (WebMD, 2014). It must be noted in this regard that, Studies also link stress to changes in the way blood clots, which makes a heart attack more likely (WebMD, 2014). The relationship between stress and cardiovascular diseases has been the focus of the article, Psychological Stress and Cardiovascular Disease by Joel E. Dimsdale (2008). Dimsdale (2008) has emphasized the relationship between stress and cardiovascular diseases by citing research studies which have revealed that long-term stressors impact negatively on cardiac functions. Job stress, marital unhappiness, and burden of care-giving are some of the stressful factors which can instigate cardiovascular diseases and Dimsdale (2008) has pointed out that several studies on the relationship between stress and cardiovascular diseases have revealed the fact that stress ushers pathophysiological changes which can result in sudden death, myocardial infarction, myocardial ischemia, and abnormalities including wall motion abnormality. Stressors impact negatively upon sympathetic nervous system activities and such negative impact cause several illnesses (Dimsdale, 2008). Stress can also cause hemosta sis which can put the life of an individual at stake (Dimsdale, 2008). Dimsdale (2008) has also pointed out that, Although stressors trigger events, it is less clear that stress causes the events. There is nonetheless overwhelming evidence both for the deleterious effects of stress on the heart and for the fact that vulnerability and resilience factors play a role in amplifying or dampening those effects. Dimsdale (2008) has concluded that, there is a relationship between cardiovascular diseases and stress and when the stressor continues or when the patient continues imposing the stressor through brooding, there are adverse effects on the heart. Though considerably modifiable, stress-related cardiac risk is a fact and the relationship is also evidential in nature. Dimsdales claims can be supported by citing the points of discussion that prevails in the article, Stress and cardiovascular disease in which Steptoe and Kivimaki (2012) have referred to epidemiological data which shows that chronic stress has the potential to predict the occurrence of coronary heart disease on the part of specific individuals who are exposed to continuous stress. Steptoe and Kivimaki (2012) have stated that, those individuals who are continuously exposed to work-related stress and those individuals who are exposed to social isolation have greater chances of developing coronary heart disease. Stress like the ones related to job has the potential to put individuals at risk of developing complicated heart diseases. This argument can be supported by citing the fact that, One study found a linear progression between self-reported psychological stress a nd damage to the carotid artery. The extensive Whitehall Study in the UK among government employees found that those with the least control over their work had the highest rates of heart disease (World Heart Federation, 2016). Steptoe and Kivimaki (2012) have also pointed out that, cardiac problems can be triggered by short-term emotional stress and such phenomenon is specifically observable among individuals suffering from advanced atherosclerosis. Steptoe and Kivimaki (2012) have also revealed the fact that, acute psychological stress can induce transient myocardial ischemia in patients suffering from coronary heart disease (CHD). Steptoe and Kivimaki (2012) have also stated that, long-term stress can increase the risk of recurrent CHD events and mortality. Steptoe and Kivimakis (2012) findings can be supported by citing the fact that, stress undoubtedly exerts real physiological effects on human body and it can impact negatively upon the heart (Harvard Health Publications: HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL, 2013). Sudden exposure to stress (generated through news of death of a child, etc) can actually damage arteries and it has been found that when cardiac catheterization of an individual who have suffered from anxiety attack is done, an artery that was previously open is observed to be closed (Harvard Health Publications: HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL, 2013). This proves that stress has a direct relationship to cardiovascular diseases and anx iety-related illnesses. Moreover, cardiovascular damage in the form of broken heart syndrome is also an outcome of severe and acute form of stress (Harvard Health Publications: HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL, 2013). In conclusion, though more research studies are required to establish an explicit relationship between stress and diseases like cardiovascular diseases, the present literature on the topic of concern has emphasized the fact that there is a relationship between stressors and the development of certain diseases. Considering the evidential nature of the literature available on the topic of stress, it can be said that, stress causes illness and such illness encompasses diseases like deterioration of the immunity system and cardiovascular diseases. Stress increases the rate of functioning of some specific organs in the human body and this includes sudden increase in the heartbeat instigating forceful blood flow which can put the life of certain individuals at stake. Research studies have also found that the release of certain chemicals within the human body in the course of experiencing stress can thoroughly diminish the immunity system of the human body paving the way for the intrusion o f specific illnesses. Chronic stressors are responsible for suppressing both cellular and humoral immunity and this may result in the development of some specific illnesses. Moreover, due to stress, sympathetic fibers may descend from the brain and may get infused in bone marrow, thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes and as these fibers have the potential to release a wide variety of substances influencing the immune responses, it can be said that there is a relationship between stress and the immune response. Stress can give rise to autoimmune diseases in the course of which the immune system starts treating self-tissues as invaders and starts attacking those tissues, causing pathological conditions such as multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, Crohns disease and several other related diseases. Stress is directly related to heart attacks and some other critical cardiovascular diseases. Stress causes angina, hypertension, arrhythmia, and several other heart-related problems, an d if these problems sustain for long, an individuals life may be at stake. References American Heart Association, (2014). Stress and Heart Health. [online] Available at: https://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/StressManagement/HowDoesStressAffectYou/Stress-and-Heart-Health_UCM_437370_Article.jsp#.Vo0u9_l97IU [Accessed 6 Jan. 2016]. Bunker, S., Colquhoun, D., Esler, M., Hickie, I., Hunt, D., Jelinek, V., Oldenburg, B., Peach, H., Ruth, D., Tennant, C. and Tonkin, A. (2003). 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