Floral Diversity in Organic and Modern Farming

Floral Diversity in complete and Modern res publicaIs entire Farming demote for floral variation than modern solid ground?1.0 Chapter 1 Introduction1.1 Introduction. Agriculture has had a profound impact upon biological diversity. sylvan surplusization, mechanisation and intensification leading to compaction and soil erosion, and poor farm management, clear consequenceanted in a worldwide slump in works, invertebrate and doll numbers in recent decades (Stoate et al., cc1). The Law of Specialization has encouraged the clearing of inbred habitat for the glossiness of a few species, with biodiversity organism the victim of this trade off in the midst of productivity and variety. This modern approach to land was encouraged and sponsored (i.e. through the Common Agricultural Policy CAP) by the presidency after the Second World War. The impact of rationing was still un determinationd in the minds of the UK universe of discourse and a concentrated effort was made t o subjoin agrarian output. The baby boom of the 1950s in growth added incentive to these efforts. The choose to addition boorish output was a great success. New fertilisers (N, P, K) and pesticides (dichlorodip chickyltrichloroethane etc) were super successful at improving graze yields. As time went by however, order began to slowly emerge of milieual deadening.Despite growing environmental concerns, and numerous academic studies soaringlighting the controvert impact upon floral diversity by modern agricultural practices, the worlds world is estimated to come on to 9-10 billion by 2050, which symbolises in that respect will be change magnitude pressure on land to build new homes. Consequently, global intellectual nourishment security is heavily dependant upon technological advances in order to avoid Malthusians scenario of poverty and famine due to overpopulation. The question is whether original work is better for floral diversity comp ard with modern floricu lture, exclusively ultimately, even if turn out points to the detail that entire is more favourable than modern methods, the question will be will it be capable of meeting the growing demands placed on agriculture and solve environmental problems?1.2 Early concerns Rachel Carson sounded the warning bell against the processes and practices associated with agricultural intensification in her book, Silent Spring, published in 1962. In it Carson collects a negative view on the change magnitude routine of agricultural chemicals Since the mid-nineteen forties, over 200 basic chemicals necessitate been created for use in killing insects, widows smokings, rodents and some(a) other organisms depict in the modern vernacular as pests, and they argon sold on a lower floor several thousand different brand names. The sprays, dusts and aerosols be now apply al about univers whollyy to farms, gardens, forests and homes non-selective chemicals that provoke the power to kill e ve ry(prenominal) insect, the skillful and the bad, to still the song of skirts and the leaping of fish in the streams to coat the leaves with a deadly film and to linger on in soil all this, though the intended target whitethorn be only a few weeds or insects. Can each angiotensin-converting enzyme believe it is possible to redact down such(prenominal) a barrage of poisons on the surface of the basis without making it unfit for all life? They should non be cal lead insecticides hardly biocides. (Carson, 1962).Carson also talked about the foul use of Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT). Research in the interfere years welcome somewhat validated her basic argument, though there were some criticisms concerning inaccuracies in her book. The Stockholm Convention is a global accord to protect human health and the environment from persistent constitutive(a) fertilizer pollutants (POPs). POPs, of which DDT is one of a so called dirty dozen, be chemicals that wait intac t in the environment for long periods, become widely distri barelyed geographically, lay away in the fatty tissue of brio organisms and are toxic to mankind and wildlife. In acting as a signatory to the Convention, the Government signalled its determination to eliminate or reduce the run through of POPs into the environment.2.0 Pollution and Biodiversity Our knowledge of the ways in which Biodiversity is essential for the survival of humans, in addition to many other species, is still evolving. From unidentified species to potencyly undiscovered medicines, biodiversity is an issue of worldwide splendor, providing natural re seminal fluids which are essential for sustaining not only life on earth, but also economic activities. Biodiversity helps to principal(prenominal)tain a healthy and stable environment in which businesses deal operate, and its conservation is increasingly viewed by scientists, economists and businesses alike as a key part of economic stability.The growt h of environmental gageon in recent times represents a governmental acknowledgement of, and receipt to, a strong body of scientific data establishing links between contaminant and the environment. In the UK, The august Commission on Environmental Pollution, found in 1970, interpreted befoulment in broad terms of the submission by man into the environment of substances or energy liable to take a leak hazards to human health, harm to living resources and ecological systems, injure to structures or amenity, or interference with legitimate uses of the environment (Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, 2004).The accessibility of natural resources is dependant on a stable environment, which is maintained by complex interactions and processes within and between ecosystems. Any significant impacts of environmental pollution on biodiversity can impact upon our biosphere (Trevors, J.T., 2003). The costs following the loss of ecosystem services, and the resources they support , are unpredictable but possible to be considerable, therefore the management and minimisation of this risk should be of high strategic importance to any business.The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollutions broad definition of pollution effectively means that pollution can be anything that nonpluss damage and/or aggravation to people, wildlife, or the environment such as chemicals, racquet or gases. Due to the complex character of relationships between organisms in an ecosystem, the exclude of pollutants into the environment can not only kill organisms outright, but they can also change the conditions and processes occurring within a system and result in changes that can degrade entire habitats and disrupt ecological processes. These changes have the potential to cause long-term environmental change through the accumulative make of their release.Pollutants arise from a variety of sources, such as toxic substances, accidental spills, industrial processes or illegal dumping . Not all pollutants are necessarily semisynthetic, however, human activities some(prenominal) exacerbate or increase their polluting effect. For example, uranium is a naturally occurring radioactive waste that call for to be safely managed, increasing the risk of contamination and radiation that can cause lethal transmissible mutations and killing living organisms. In terms of biodiversity, uranium mining often occurs in remote areas that are considered valuable for biological diversity, therefore the influence of risks such as leakages into ground pee and food chains is essential.The heart and soul of pollution in the environment is a very significant issue pollution needs to be reduced in order to reduce its impact on biodiversity. Efforts to reduce pollution often reveal the complex nature of environmental pollution. In the UK during the 1970s and 1980s there was a growing fruition that freshwater eutrophication was an increasing problem. Initial research pointed to p hosphorus from industrial pollution as the main source of pollution, peculiarly from Sewage Treatment whole kit (STWs) due to a growth in phosphate-based detergents. Additional tertiary intervention at STWs failed to reduce levels of eutrophication in the long-term and it soon became clear that riddle pollution from agriculture was, and is, the main factor resulting in continued water quality problems. The use of P fertilizer has generally exceeded agronomic requirements and led to soil P saturation. Whilst P is an essential name nutrient, excessive concentrations are claiming the ecosystems natural coping mechanism. The result is one of the most urgent environmental problems facing the UK today (Environment Agency, 2005).2.1 Ecological Impacts What are the associated ecological impacts of the post-war father in agricultural intensification? The impact of this intensification on bird populations has been dramatic. Birds provide great indicators of environmental change as t hey are substantially monitored, well researched, and high up in the food chain (Furness and Greenwood, 1993). Between 1970 and 1990, Fuller et al (1995) found that 24 out of 28 species had contracted in lam, with a adjust of copiousness in 15 out of 18 species for which population change could be assessed. Of these species, seven had dec crimpd by more than 50%, declines organism most pronounced amongst granivorous species (i.e., those with a substantial seed component in the diet). Similar range contractions and population declines were not found in bird communities of woodland or other widespread habitat types over the very(prenominal) period.In addition to fertilizer and pesticide use, practices associated with agricultural intensification also complicated civilization and re-seeding of grassland, simplified crop rotations, loss of marginal habitats and increased graze levels. every last(predicate) of these practices were likely to have an impact on the approachability of food for nesting and nourishment birds (Wilson et al, 1999). The case of the decline of grey partridge Perdix perdix L. populations in Britain however, complicates this assertion. The decline was partly attributable to poor chick survival as a consequence of the effects of weedkiller-spraying of ce objectives on insect food supply and not necessarily a reduction in food approachability (Potts, 1986). However, agricultural practices have affected arable flora in one way or another(prenominal). What species have been affected?Gramineae (including wild species and extraction feed crops e.g. rye grass) Many agricultural practices affect grass copiousness e.g. after fertilizer application, grazing intensification, herbicide application, cutting regime and ploughing. However, Wilson et al (1999) show that some of the practices had detrimental and non-detrimental consequences, some promoting copiousness of some grasses whilst trim down abundance of others. For example, Increa ses in cutting, grazing, tillage, fertilizer applications and herbicide usage thus cause declines in species diversity, but favour those species responsive to these conditions, including the meadow-grasses Poa, which are of particular importance in the diet of farmland birds.Polygonaceae The Polygonaceae, represented on moderate atomic number 63an farmland mainly by Polygonum (knotgrasses and persicarias) and Rumex (docks and sorrels), have the capacity for high seed production, making them a rich source of food for birds but invasive weeds of arable and grassland. Reviews of long-term population trends (Wilson et al., 1999) suggest that most Polygonaceae in arable areas are likely to have declined dramatically, whereas in pastures, roadsides, spoil heaps and waste ground, populations may be increasing.Chenopodiaceae This family on farmland is represented by Chenopodium (goosefoots), genus Atriplex (oraches) and Beta (mainly cultivated diet and sugar beets). In non-crop Chenopodiac eae, herbicide applications and grazing control populations whilst fertilisation may encourage growth due to taste perception for high Nitrogen concentrations. Populations have declined in arable areas (Wilson et al., 1999).Caryophyllaceae The main genera taken by birds on temperate European farmland are Cerastium (mouse-ears), Silene (campions and catchflies), Stellaria (chickweeds and stitchworts) and Spergula (spurreys). With the possible exception of chickweeds, decline of Caryophyllaceae on arable land is likely to have been widespread, but in pastoral areas and other fertile, disturbed areas, not subject to intense herbicide control, population of chickweeds and mouse-ears may be maintaining themselves or increasing (Wilson et al., 1999). aster family Composites found on temperate farmland in Europe include Arctium (burdocks), Artemisia (mugworts), Carduus (thistles), Centaurea (knapweeds), Cirsium (plume-thistles), Helianthus (sunflowers), Leontodon (hawkbits), Senecio (ra gworts and groundsels), genus Sonchus (sow-thistles), Taraxacum (dandelions) and Tussilago (coltsfoot), all of which are eaten by birds. Of these, sunflowers are oil-rich seed crops adult mainly in warm temperate farmland, whilst the remainder are all found in the wild flora. Evidence points to declines caused by nuance and herbicide use, and increases in response to increased grazing pressure and fertilizer use. Dandelions are contraryly affected by invariable ploughing, whereas modern grassland practices such as intense grazing and in thoroughgoing fertilizer application likely favour growth. In the long term, populations of most composites are likely to be stable or declining in intensively arable areas, but in other fertile, disturbed sites, not subject to intensive herbicide control, populations may be increasing (Wilson et al., 1999).Brassicaceae The diet of farmland birds includes Alliaria (garlic mustards), genus Capsella (shepherds purse), Raphanus (radishes), Thlasp i (pennycresses), Brassica (includes wild and cultivated varieties of oilseeds, turnips and cabbages) and genus Sinapis (charlock). Overall, wild Brassicaceae have probably declined dramatically on intensive arable farmland in recent decades (Wilson et al., 1999).Fabaceae On temperate European farmland, Fabaceae are characterised by low, creeping nitrogen-fixers such as Medicago (cultivated lucerne and medicks), Trifolium (clovers and trefoils) and Vicia (vetches and beans). Better drainage and regular grazing encourage legumes, but loss of ley-based rotations has reduced the overall availability of clovers and vetches as set crops. In the long-term, populations of wild clovers and vetches on farmland are likely to be declining due to herbicidal weed control and grassland improvement, but sown populations of certain clover species (mainly white T. repens L. and red clover T. pratense L.) will overwhelm these declines in areas where grass-clover leys are still sown (Wilson et al., 1999).Labiatae, On farmland, Labiatae are characterised by Galeopsis (hemp-nettles), Lamium (dead-nettles) and Stachys (woundworts). Herbicide applications are detrimental to most members of the family. In the long-term, populations of dead-nettles and hemp-nettles are likely to be declining in arable areas, although dead-nettles may be increasing in other fertile, disturbed habitats (Wilson et al., 1999). buttercup family, Ranunculaceae (typified by buttercups Ranunculus) are in long-term decline in some(prenominal) arable and pastoral farmland, probably due to a combination of herbicide control on arable land, fertilization of grasslands, and loss of pasture to cultivation (Wilson et al., 1999).Boraginaceae, On farmland, Boraginaceae are characterized by Myosotis (forget-me-nots), which are cognize to be sensitive to herbicide applications. there is also some evidence that populations of scene of action forget-me-not M. arvensis (L.) Hill are in long-term decline in arable lan d (Wilson et al., 1999). localizeain family, Violaceae, Herbicide application was the only agricultural operation recorded as having detrimental effects on Plantaginaceae (plantains) and Violaceae (violets and pansies) (Wilson et al., 1999).Urticaceae, A review by Wilson et al., (1999) found no evidence of specific impacts of agricultural practices on Urticaceae (nettles). In the long term, however, coarse nettle Urtica dioica L. and annual nettle U. urens L. are likely to be stable or declining in arable habitats as a result of herbicidal weed control, but are probably increasing elsewhere in disturbed, fertile habitats.Amaranthaceae Amaranthaceae (pokeweeds) are serious agricultural weeds in the Americas (Cousens and Mortimer, 1995), and increasingly so as aliens in parts of Europe. A review by Wilson et al., (1999) found no data on the effects of agricultural operations on the abundance of this family in Europe.3.0 Analysis of Organic Farming3.1 Organic agribusiness Organic bo dy politic has been shown to benefit some species. fresh studies in England suggest that entire systems support more broad-leaved plants than pompous systems. (e.g. Kay and Gregory, 1999). Kay and Gregory (1999) found that, out of 23 rare or declining arable plant species, 18 were more abundant on organic farms, with 13 of them being absent on stodgy farms. However, if improvements were made in mechanical weed control technology in conventional farms these differences in plant abundance and species richness between the two systems could be reduced.3.2 Organic farming a solution? When the environmental problems in agriculture came into spotlight, different forms of organic farming had been practiced in Europe for several decades. These farming methods were quickly presented as a solution for most of the problems agriculture is facing. i reason for the increase in organic agriculture in many countries in Europe today is the need to solve environmental problems. In such situation s, we often tend to accept appealing solutions. Furthermore, intensive propaganda by representatives of organic farming movements has had a strong influence on public opinion, politicians, and scientists. But what is the likeliness that Organic farming can meet the requirements of agriculture and solve some of these major environmental problems?Although some environmental problems were already identified as a result of the industrialization of societies from the 19th century, the breakthrough of broad environmental consciousness, as epitomized by the Silent Spring by Rachel Carson, took place in the 1960s. New research orientations, national and multinational environmental protection agencies, and environmental interest organizations were founded. Within agriculture several organizations, sharing a disfavour view of nature, biodynamic and organic-biological, promoted their agricultural methods as a solution to the environmental problems. One theory of organic farming, biodynamic f arming, which is part of a comprehensive philosophy called anthroposophy, was presented by Steiner in 1924. Its aim was not to solve environmental problems but to figure a form of production forces. Biodynamic and other forms of organic agriculture prove easily soluble inorganic fertilizers and synthetic pesticides on principle (KRAV, 1999).A comprehensive review was made by Hole et al. (2005) of the impacts on biodiversity of organic farming relative to conventional agriculture. They identified a wide range of taxa, including birds, mammals, invertebrates and arable flora, which benefit from organic management through increases in abundance and/or species richness. Also highlighted were three broad management practices (prohibition/reduced use of chemical pesticides and inorganic fertilisers sympathetic management of non-cropped habitats and preservation of mixed farming) that are largely intrinsic (but not exclusive) to organic farming, and that are particularly sound for farml and wildlife.However, most problems that occur in conventional agriculture may also be present in organic farming, such as erosion, nitrogen leaching, ammonia volatilization from animal wastes, high levels of native soil cadmium, compendium of trace metals in soil, and subsoil compaction caused by farm machinery. Organic farming methods do not offer solutions to many of these problems. For example, the exclusion of easily soluble inorganic fertilizer does not necessarily imply less(prenominal) leaching or less eutrophication. On the contrary, leaching of total N from soil receiving animal manure, either composted or anaerobically stored, can be much higher than from inorganic fertilizer applied at the same N rate if measured over several years. Green manuring can also cause high nitrate leaching losses. From an environmental point of view, it does not matter whether the nutrients come from inorganic or organic sources. What matters is when, how and in what bar plant nutrients are available to crops, i.e. if the nutrient supply is in synchronization with the demand of the crop (Myers et al., 1997).Crop quality is put forward as an important argument for organic farming. Crop quality depends on the plant nutrient status in the soil, the dynamics of nutrient release, weather conditions during growth, damage caused by pests, toxic compounds produced by the crops themselves and the adherent microflora, contamination with pesticides and pollutants, and the post-harvest treatment. Several investigations have clearly shown that the type of fertilization, contrary to the principle of organic farming, does not affect plant quality (e.g. Hansen, 1981) whereas the intensity of fertilization does. Thus, crop quality is not dependent on the principal difference between inorganic fertilization and organic manuring. Furthermore, considerable variation in crop quality can be found between farms regardless of whether they are using conventional or organic methods. This divis ion into organic and conventional agriculture loses spot of the principal factors concerning crop quality and environmentally friendly agriculture.In railway line to conventional agriculture, organic farming without purchase of feed may result in a nutrient depletion of soils (Nolte and Werner, 1994). Through the import of alimentation material to farms, which means a net input of nutrients, depletion is normally avoided. As the feeding stuff may be produced elsewhere with inorganic fertilizers, organic farming indirectly depends on the soil fertility of conventional farming. However, regulations about the amount of conventionally grown feeding stuff to be used in organic farming differ between countries.Side-effects caused by synthetic pesticides and medicine feeding are not found in organic farming, a positive result. However, the exclusion of pesticides may result in increased concentrations of substitute plant metabolites and of mycotoxins of field fungi. Eltun (1996) desc ribe higher concentrations of deoxynivalenol and nivalenol in grain samples from organic than from conventional farming. Furthermore, in the same experiment no pesticide residues were found in grain samples grown conventionally. Thus, the exclusion of pesticides does not necessarily mean that crop products do not contain unwanted substances. The area for housing and outdoorsy movement of farm animals has received more attention in organic than in conventional agriculture. This concern is positive and space requirements should be find for all types of farming. Humans have kept parentage for millennia, resulting in the selection of animals with behaviours that differs from the wild species. The natural behavior cannot be the only guideline for livestock management. It is important to keep animals in such a way that the special requirements of each species are fulfilled and destructive forms of behaviour are avoided.In order to understand todays organic farming movement, it may be us eful to know that the highly influential form of organic agriculture, biodynamic farming (Steiner, 1975), had its roots in a philosophy of life and not in the agricultural sciences. A common attitude within the organic movement is that nature and natural products are good, whereas man-made chemicals are bad, or at least not as good as natural ones. This way of thinking may also explain why man-made fertilizers and synthetic pesticides are excluded. Although there is no reason to believe that nature is only good, as exemplified in agriculture by crop failures, plant or animal diseases, and the effects of natural disasters, this romantic way of thinking is widespread. The forces of nature are fantastic and filled with still unknown secrets, but at the same time the results of natural activity may be bad. That is why natural conditions cannot be the only guideline for an honourable code about interactions between humans and nature. We have to define an honourable code that takes int o account the full truth, and it is our responsibility to do so. As indicated above, views and beliefs originating from a philosophy of life are the driving force behind organic farming. People should have free choice concerning religion or a philosophy of life and a strong ethical foundation is very important, but placing philosophical ideas above scientific thinking, especially if they contradict scientific results, leads to severe communication problems. For example, to demand the exclusion of synthetic fertilizers shifts matters of science into the field of dogma. The fundamental question, why plant nutrients should be added in organic forms or as untreated minerals only, has never been proved.4.0 Analysis of Alternatives4.1 Alternative solutions The bottom line is that current agricultural practices are not sustainable and alternatives are needed. Plant, invertebrate and bird numbers have all declined during the last century as a result of land management practices, whilst exce ss levels of fertilizer inputs have led to deteriorating water quality problems (of which, groundwater contamination and eutrophication are perhaps the most significant). The cause has been the increasing intensification and specialisation of farming, with a shift from mixed farming to arable farming in the east and grassland in the west. Biodiversity has also been impacted by the planting of autumn cereals. Whilst Organic farming is being promoted as a better alternative, there is growing interest in the use of genetically modified-based agriculture.4.2 Biotechnology and Genetically Modified Foods Biotechnology can potentially play a significant input into sustainable agricultural productivity, particularly for poor and/or small scale farmers in developing countries. whatsoever of the benefits include learning of techniques to 1) facilitate enhanced resistance to insect pests/diseases accountable for reduced yields 2) ability to tolerate drought/salinity or dim metals. The Nu ffield Council on Bioethics, concluded in 2003 that some GM crops offer real benefits to those in the developing world. Thomas (SDI, 2003) uses the example of half the cotton fiber grown in China during 2002 being genetically modified. The GM crops produced a toxin to the cotton bollworm, a pest that can devastate crops. Yields were estimated to have increased by 10% whilst there was a 60% decrease in reported cases of humans being impacted by the toxic effects of applying pesticides without preservative clothing. The report did, however, highlight a need for economic, political and social change.Watkinson (2000), in a study on sugar beet genetically modified to tolerate broad-spectrum herbicideglyphosate, found that densities of fat hen, a common weed in sugar beet, were less than 10% of those in conventional crops. The seeds of fat hen are an important winter food resource for farmland birds. Skylarks forage preferentially in weedy fields, so therefore the impacts of GM crops cr itically depend on the extent to which high-density patches of weeds are affected.Argentina provides another example. The uptake of Monsantos round-up ready soya was phenomenal during the mid to advanced 90s. Some 13 million hectares were converted to GM. However, increasing dominance of bigger farmers has resulted in many smaller farmers leaving their lands. Traditionally, many people were employ for weeding but increased herbicide usage has resulted in unemployment and increasing concerns contact the impact on human health (Branford, 2002). The benefits of using herbicide wicked crops in this context are therefore questionable. Monsanto needs to assess GM application in Argentina in order to learn from any mistakes and develop best practice guidelines for the future.Companies such as Monsanto and Syngenta appear, committed to principles of global sustainable agriculture and both have germplasm protection projects, in addition to community and environmental projects. Monsanto, in conjunction with Bayer CropScience BASF Dow Agrosciences Dupont and Syngenta have accomplished an Agricultural Biotech Council (ABC) in order to promote a reasoned and balance debate surrounding the use of agricultural biotechnology. However, it appears more like a union to promote the benefits of agricultural biotechnology.4.3 Biosafety During the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) negotiations, governments were aware of the potential modern biotechnology had with regards the achievement of its 3 main aims the conservation of biodiversity, the sustainable use of the components of biodiversity, and the sporty and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources. There was, however, a provision for adequate safety measures for the environment and human health.This proviso make believes Article 19 of the CBD, which relates to the handling of biotechnology and the distribution of its benefits. Four paragraphs constitute Article 19 and require parties to the Convention to1) take appropriate measures to meet effective participation in biotechnological research activities, especially developing countries 2) to take practical measures to promote and advance access on a fair and equitable basis 3) to consider requirements of a communications protocol addressing (including advance advised agreement) and 4) make available information about the use and safety regulations, as well as any information on the potential ill impact of the specific organisms.Decision II/5, established an Open-ended Ad Hoc Working Group on Biosafety to develop a draft protocol on biosafety, specifically focusing on transboundary movement of any living modified organism resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse effects on the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. The expound and history of this working Group, from its formation to the subsequent adoption of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological D iversity on the 29 January 2000, is quite an convoluted.Environmental / human health consequences and concerns arising from introduction of GM plants led to the development of regulatory regimes to assess safety. Imports of GMOs into the UK (and EC) are covered by vivacious corporation legislation Council Directive 2001/18/EC on the deliberate release into the environment of GMOs. The Protocol is therefore most beneficial to developing countries without existing legislation on GMOs and who require information before deciding on the conservational and sustainable impact of accepting GMO imports. In the UK, further EC regulations were espouse arising from the need to address exported obligations. Such issues have led to the implementation of EC Regulation No. 1946/2003 on the transboundary movement of GMOs.4.4 Does Sustainable Agriculture mean sustainable development? The Convention on Biosafety specifically addresses the variety of risks to sylvan ecosystems, particularly i