Far from the Madding Crowd Essay Example for Free

Far from the Madding Crowd Essay He admits to Bathsheba at the beginning of the novel that, But I cant match you, I know, in mapping out my mind upon my tongue. He is not a man of words, unlike Troy and Boldwood, but proves that actions can speak louder than words. He is unable to speak the flattery that Troy can, or be as persistent and persuasive as Boldwood is, but in his devoted actions to Bathsheba, by being the hard and diligent worker that he is, he is rewarded in the end, by giving the opportunity to offer Bathsheba the love that he had talked of to her when he had first met her. In contrast to Gabriel, Francis Troy is a man who appears to understand only what he can get out of love. He does not believe in treating women fairly, and which is expressed as he says, treat them fairly and you are a lost man, when referring to women. Hardy also writes about his consistency when telling the truth; He was moderately truthful towards men, but to women he lied like a cretan. By lying to women he found it easy to get what he wanted, as Hardy describes him; he spoke fluently and unceasingly. At the beginning, Hardy remarks that a womans greatest fault is her Vanity. Troy, as he possesses such ease with the words he uses, has learnt that a womans weakness is her vanity, and knows that by flattering them he can get what he wants. This is precisely what he did with Bathsheba, and like her, he felt some sense of triumph when he saw that he had succeeded in weakening the women he flattered, as she did with the men she flirted with. However, instead of making the women he met feel confident, his flattery merely destroyed them, as they became dependent upon him to feed their vain needs. Troy did not have the emotional sense of love, but instead he felt the physical attraction to the women he met. This meant that he only got involved with beautiful women, as it was their beauty that attracted them to him. Even after having left Bathsheba for so long, when he saw her again at Greenhill Sheep Fair, it was her beauty that found unexpected chords of feeling, to be stirred again within him The way in which Troy judged by appearances was perhaps inevitably the cause of his failed marriage to Bathsheba, because he had not got to know Bathsheba as a person, but simply looked at her, as a symbol of beauty. In some ways it could be said that he looked at the women as trophies that he had won. Troy was also a man driven by wealth. Bathsheba, who had come into wealth after the inheritance of the lease of Weatherbury Farm, would have been even more attractive to him as she now had money. We know that he was driven by money, as he used to bet on the horses, which put considerable financial strain on Bathsheba. This was probably the reason why he did not marry Fanny, due to her financial instability. Money was also the reason why he did not return to Bathsheba initially after landing at Liverpool, as Hardy writes, what a life such a future of poverty would be. This, unlike the love felt by Gabriel, was a selfish form of love, because he only ever though of himself. He had a very superficial view of love, which required wealth in order to make him happy. Troys opinions of love did not include the idea of commitment, and another reason for the failure of his marriage could be due to his womanising and flirtatious behaviour. We learn near to the end of the novel that his opinion of marriage is negative and he sees it not as the beginning of two peoples lives together, but as he says himself, all romances end at marriage. He also did not believe in the idea of equality, and shared responsibilities in a relationship, as he abandons Fanny with the great burden of an unborn child to deal with alone. This is probably due to his carefree opinion of sex, which he also valued as much as he did love. Troy did not value love as anything special, and this could be put down to the fact that he had a very unstable background, and an uncertain upbringing. His profession would also have something to do with his opinion of women, and as a soldier, he probably never had to deal with women and did not understand them. This is why he tried to possess them, and this destroyed them. Hardy has some very clear opinions that he wishes to get across to the reader in this novel. He uses the characters as tools, to create a picture for the readers, expressing his personal views on love. He rewards those characters that see love as a simple but precious thing, and he shows how much he admires Gabriel Oak for his powers of endurance, by rewarding him with Bathsheba in the end. In contrast, he punishes those characters that take love too lightly. An example of this is the attitude of Troy which end is death in the end. Hardy warns us of the great power of love and how dangerous it can be. The obsession that Boldwood felt for Bathsheba, is another feeling that he condemns, and shows how life can be ruined because of obsession. This is shown by the lifelong imprisonment of Boldwood. Hardys opinions of love are really exposed at the end of the novel, when he describes his own thoughts about how truelove can develop. He uses Bathsheba and Gabriel as an example of how true love can develop. They were tried friends who enjoyed good-fellowship and comraderie. The main message Hardy is trying to get across to us is that love cannot hide behind a fake face. He writes that in order for a successful relationship to take place, you must know the rougher sides of each others character. This is the love Hardy describes to be the only love which is as strong as death- that love which many waters cannot quench, nor the floods drown.

Effect of Azadirachtin on Insects

Effect of Azadirachtin on Insects INTRODUCTION Humans have always been in direct competition with a myriad of insects, pests from our ancestral beginning. This competition for food with insects intensified when humans began to cultivate plants converting the natural ecosystem to an agroecosystem. Also insects serve as vectors of various diseases caused by bacterial, filarial nematode, protozoans and viruses. Therefore control of insects posed a major concern for the development of the economy. In 1939, the discovery of insecticidal properties of DDT (Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane) by Paul H. Mueller changed the scenario of pest management. During World War 2 DDT was extensively used to prevent epidemics of several insect vectored diseases such as yellow fever, typhus elephantiasis and malaria. This drew attention to the possibilities of more synthetic insecticides and as a result the use of pesticides in various arenas soared from 1940-60, complete reliance on pesticides intensive pest management was leading agriculture on a à ¢â‚¬Å"pesticide treadmill†. The overreliance on synthetic pesticides from late 1940s to mid-1960 was referred to as â€Å"Dark Ages† of pest control. The cheapness and effectiveness of synthetic insecticides threw natural compounds into shade. But very soon other shades also began to appear. In 1962, the appearance of book â€Å"Silent Spring† (by Rachel Carison) showed that pesticide residues were building up in ecosystem with detrimental effects on wildlife and beneficial insects. Due to extensive and intensive use, misuse and abuse of insecticides the following problems were becoming prominent and intolerable (ecological backlashes): Development of insecticide resistance- many insects started developing resistance against pesticides which increased the cost of management. Due to killing of natural controlling agents, the phenomenon of pest resurgence became more evident. Also minor pest were achieving the status of major pest i. e. secondary pest outbreak due to significant decline in its natural enemy (predators and parasites). Ecological imbalance due to poisoning of all the realms of environment. Increase in the concentration of hydrochlorinated insecticide in food chain. Intolerable residues on the food made the food obtained after such treatment uneconomical as it became unfit for consumption and unfit for exports due to high toxic residues. Killing and harmful effects on Non target organisms became more prominent (like birds, fishes and other wildlife). Overviewing these effects, there was an utmost need for the development of environmentally sound management practices. This lead to the idea of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) . A panel of experts put the concept of IPM in 1968. IPM as defined by FAO is a system which in consideration with the present environment and pest population dynamics, integrates all the sustainable techniques of pest management as compatible a manner as possible and maintain the population of pest below the level which can cause economic damage (i. e. below economic injury level). The approach is to minimize the dependence on insecticides and maximize the use of ecofriendly methods so as to cause minimum damage to the environment. Botanical pesticides, thus is an very important component of IPM as They are easily degradable. Dont affect non target organisms, natural controlling agents such as predator, parasites. Dont form residues And has no harmful effect on humans as they are very specific in action. Botanical pesticides refer to the use of chemical or organic compound produced by plants, plant products, which have harmful effects on the growth, development and survival of insect pests. Plants are a rich source of such organic compounds. HISTORY The practice of utilizing the derivatives of plant i. e. botanical pesticides in agriculture dates at least two millennia back in ancient China, Egypt, Greece and India. Even in North America and Europe, the documented use of botanicals extend back more than 150 years before the discovery of major class of synthetic chemical insecticides (OP, carbamates and pyretheroids) in mid 1930s to 1950. It is very clear from the recent history that the chemical insecticides have essentially relegated the botanical pesticides from an important role in agriculture to a trivial position in the market among various crop protection strategies. The total number of 20 phylochemicals is estimated to be 500000, so far only 10000 of these have been isolated. At present four major types of botanicals are being used for the control of insects. These include: Pyrethrum Neem (Azadirachtin). Rotenons. Essential oils. Others are in limited use like Ryania, Nicotine, Sabdella. Whereas Nicotine, Rotenene, Natural Pyrethrins constitute the outstanding example of older botanicals, extracts and compounds from the Neem tree (A. indica) have emerged as the most prominent phytochemical pesticides in recent years. Among the various biologically active compounds that can be extracted from the Neem tree like- triterpenoid, phenolic compounds, carotenoids, steroids, ketones; the tetranortriterpenoid azadirachtin has been the most extensively studied pesticide as 1) it is relatively abundant in Neem kernels. 2) has biological activity on a wide range of insects. PLANT SECONDARY METABOLITES Plants produce a large, diverse array of organic compounds that appears to have no function in growth and development. These substances are known as SECONDARY METABOLITES or secondary products or natural products. Secondary metabolites differ from Primary metabolites (amino acids, nucleotides, sugars, acyl lipids) as: They have no direct roles in photosynthesis, respiration, protein synthesis etc They have restricted distribution in plant kingdom. In a seminal paper Fraenkel stressed the role of secondary metabolites as defense system against insects, pests and other natural enemies. Though they play no role in growth and metabolism they play important ecological role in plants: They protect plants against being eaten by herbivore and being infected by microbial pathogen. They serve as attractants for pollinators and seed dispersing animals and as agents of plant-plant competition. Because of their ecological role, plant secondary metabolites are classified as ALLELOCHEMICALS, a term coined by WHITTAKER. An allelochmical is defined as a non nutritional chemical produced by an individual of one species that affects growth, health, behavior, population ecology of another species. Plants produce an astonishing array of Secondary metabolites. Even a single plant species may produce an extensive pharmacopeia of recondite chemicals. Periwinkle for example contains about more than 100 monoterpenoid indole alkaloids. It has been estimated that plant kingdom synthesizes hundreds of thousands of different secondary metabolites. The no of identified compounds now exceeds 10000. Secondary metabolites as plant defense is result of co evolution between plants and herbivores Plant secondary metabolites can be divided into three chemically distinct groups: TERPENES PHENOLICS NITROGEN CONTAINING COMPOUND TERPENES The terpenes constitute the largest class of secondary products . the diverse substances of this class are generally insoluble in water. They are biosynthesized from acetyl coA. Terpenes are classified by no of five carbon units they contain as: Monoterpenes: Contain 2 five carbon skeleton Sesquiterpenes: Contain 3 five carbon skeleton Diterpenes: Contain 4 five carbon skeleton Triterpenes: 30 carbons Tetraterpenes: 40 carbons Polyterpenoids: (C5)n,where n>8 Some terpenes have role in growth and development Terpenes defend against herbivore in many plants. Terpenes are toxins and feeding deterrentsto many plant feeding insects, thus they appear to play important defensive role in plant kingdom and protection of agricultural crops. Examples of important Terpenes: PYRETHROIDS: These are monoterpenoid that occurs in leaves and flowers of Chrysanthemum species show very striking insecticidal activity. Both natural and synthetic pyrethroids are popular ingredients in commercial insecticide because of their low persistence in the environment. Pyrethrum is the predominant botanical in use accounting for 80% of global botanical insecticide. ESSENTIAL OILS: These are the mixture of monoterpene and sesquiterpene that lends a characteristics odor to the foliage . e. g Menttholin Peppermint oil and Limonenein lemon oil are monoterpenes. Essential oils have well known insect repellent properties. They are frequently found in glandular hairs and serve to advertize the toxicity of plant repelling potential. Phytophagus insects even they take a trial bite. VOLATILE TERPENES: In corn wild tobacco certain monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes are produced and emitted only after insect feeding has already begun. These substances prevent oviposition and kill plant feeding insects and so help in controlling further damage. These also attract natural enemies of plant feeding insects so promise a sound means of pest control. LIMNOIDS: These are a group of nonvolatile Triterpene. Among these the most powerful deterrent to insects feeding known is Azadirachtin. It is a complex limnoid from Neem tree which is feeding deterrent to some insects at as low as 50ppm and it exerts a variety of toxic effect. It has considerable potential as a commercial insect control because of its low toxicity to mammals. PHENOLICS Plants produce a variety of secondary products that contain a phenol group, these are called phenolic compounds. Plants phenolics are a chemically heterogeneous group of nearly 10000 compounds . many of these serve as defense compounds against herbivores. The release of phenolics into soil limits the growth of other plants. LIGNIN a highly branched polymer of phenylpropanoid group has significant protective function in plants. Its physical toughness deters feeding by insects and chemical durability makes it relatively indigestible. The flavoids are one of the largest classes of plants phenolics e. g. anthocyanins, flavones etc. Anthocyanins are colored flavonoids that attract insects to flower and fruits by providing visual and olfactory signal. Flavonoids protect against damage by UV light. Tannins deter feeding by herbivores and it also act as feeding repellents to a great diversity of insects NITROGEN CONTAINING COMPOUND A large variety of plant secondary metabolites have nitrogen in their structure. This category includes well known defense against phytophagus insects as alkaloids and cyanogenic glycosides,glucosinolates. ALKALOIDS: These are a large family of more than 15000 nitrogen containing secondary metabolites with a heterocyclic ring. Several different types including nicotine and its relative are derived from ornithine . Most alkaloids now function as defenseagainst their predators because of their toxicity and deterrence capability. Alkaloids increase in response to initial damage fortifying against further damage e. g. wild tobacco produces higher level of nicotinefollowing damage by tobacco caterpillars. CYANOGENIC GLYCOSIDES: These are not toxic themselves but are readily broken down to give off volatile poisons; well known poisonous gas Hydrogen cyanide. When the leaf is damaged due to insects feeding on it, the cell content of different tissue mix and HCN is formed. HCN is a fast acting toxin that inhibits metalloprotiens such as iron containing cytochrome oxidase; a key enzyme of mitochondrial respiration, thus affecting physiology of insects. Thus presence of cyanogenic glycosides deters feeding by insects. GLUCOSINOLATES: A Class of plant glycosides that break down to release volatile defensive substances, also called Mustard oil glycosides. Found principally in the Brassicaceae and related plant families, where glucosinolates give off compounds responsible for smell and taste of vegetables like cabbage, cauliflower, mustards etc. These compounds function in DEFENCE as toxin and feeding repellent. But certain insects are adapted for feeding on glucosinolate containing plants without ill effects. For example glucosinolates serve as stimulant for Cabbage butterfly for feeding and egg laying and isothiocyanates serve as volatile attractants. PLANT PROTIENS: Certain plant protein also interfere with insect digestion, for example plants produce LECTINS,defensive proteins that bind to epithelial cell lining digestive tract and interfere with nutrient absorption. The best known anti digestive proteins in plants are protein inhibitors found in legumes, tomatoes, and other plants. After entering herbivores digestive tract they interfere with protein digestion, as a result insects suffer reduced rates of growth and development. THE NEEM TREE, PROPERTIES AND DISTRIBUTION The Neem tree also known by names like Indian Lilac, Margosa tree is an evergreen fastgrowing tree belonging to the order â€Å"Rutales† and family â€Å"Meliaceae†. The genus Azadirachta indica was described by A. juss in 1830. DISRIBUTION Neem tree is indigenous to Indian Subcontinent from where is has spread to many Asian and African countries such as Pakistan, Bangladesh, Mynamar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Iran, Yemen, Australia, New Guinea, Nigeria, Fizi, Tanzania, Madagascar, USA, Latin America, Germany, France, Portugal, Spain and UK. It is now grown in most tropical and sub-tropical parts of the worls. The origin of A. indica is not very clear. Some say that is has originated from Burma whereas others point it to south India. It is considered that it has originated from south-eastern and southern Asia. In Indonesia Neem exists in low lying Northern and Eastern parts of java. In Philippines it was introduced from India, Africa. Ketkar (1967) reported about 14 million trees in India. There are more than 20 million trees available in entire India. In Africa Neem was introduced from India and is concentrated in a belt stretching across the African continent from Somalia to Mauretania. In America Neem trees are prominent in Haiti, Surinam and propagation has started in Brazil, Puerto Rico, Cuba and Nicaragua. Neem trees also grow in our neighbouring countries, Middle East, Saudi Arabia and Yemen. HABITAT Neem tree is a fast growing sclerophyllous tree. It grows well in humid to semi-humid climate. It thrives well at altitudes upto 700-800m above the sea level. Neem trees are hardy and are able to grow in severe drought condition also. They thrive well in regions with less than 500 mm annual rainfall and upto 2500 mm annual rainfall. Neem tree exist in poor, shallow, sandy and stony soil. It also grows in black cotton soil in India. Neem tree can flourish in warm to very hot climates. It grows well between 21-320c temperatures but it can tolerate upto 500c during summer. Ph value between 6. 2-7 seems to the best for the growth of Neem tree. CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES It is a fast-growing tree, reaching a height of 4-7 m during the first 3 years and 5-11m during the following 5 years. It begins to bear fruit within 3-5 years and becomes fully productive in the 10th year, when it may yield up to 50 kg fruit per tree per year. The Neem tree produces its fruits, which are the main source for its production of pesticides, on drooping panicles, usually about once a year, although two fruiting periods per year occur in certain areas (e. g. West Africa). A mature Neem tree produces annually 30-50 kg of fruit, but this may depend upon rainfall and soil conditions. More conservative estimates range around 20 kg per tree; 40 kg of fresh fruit yield about 24 kg of dry fruit. Neem has the reputation of possessing a large number of biological activities which include insecticidal, nematicidal, bactericidal, and anti-fungal. It has attracted world-wide attention due to its wide ranging capacity as a biocide. PESTICIDAL CONSTITUENT OF NEEM Neem tree is the only tree in which every part of tree produces biologically active products which has various properties such as antifeedant, deterrent, growth regulation, oviposition alteration, insecticidal properties, fungicidal properties,etc. Though bark, heartwood, leaves, fruits of it produce these substances in various concentrations but it is the fruits specifically seeds which are of major importance. Neem seed kernels contain the highest amount of the active compound. 40-50 kg of fruit can yield about 5 kg of kernels (10% of fruit). Each seed contains about 1-3 kernels. Till date more than 140 active principles have been identified in different parts of the tree. Insecticidal properties of Neem is due to the presence of a class of Limnoids which include compounds like Azadirachtin, Melantriol, Salanin, Mimbines, Salannol and various sulfur containing compounds. Among these Azadirachtin is the most active and predominant insecticidal compound concentrated mainly in the seed kernels. The Azadirachtin occurs in seeds at the concentration of about 0. 1-0. 9%. It is estimated that 20-30 kg of Neem seeds are required per hectare if 2g of Azadirachtin per kg of sed is obtained. The highest yield of Azadirachtin obtained till date was about 10g/kg of seed. AZADIRACHTINAND ITS STRUCTURE Azadirachtin is a highly oxidized limnoid chemically being a tetranortriterpenoid and is the main component responsible for both anti-feedant and toxic effects in Azadirachtin. Butterworth and Morgan were the first to isolate Azadirachtin in 1968 from Neem seed. Morgan established correct molecular formula of Azadirachitn (C55H44O16). In 1971 they developed a simplified method to isolate azadirachitn by doing solvent partitioning followed by column and preparative thin layer chromatography. However its structure was determined in 1975 by Nakanishis team through the application of new NMR methods. There were some inaccuracies in the given model. Then again renewed efforts were made by the group of Ley, Kraus, Nakanishi and they gave the correct structure by using X-ray crystallography. A. indica produces a plethora of triterpenoids, the biosynthesis of which culminates in azadirachtin. The biosynthesis of azadirachtin starts with a steroid precursor tetracyclic triterpene â€Å"tirucallol†. Opening of C-ring followed by processing via two main levels of structural complexity i. e. furan ring formation leads to Azadirachtin. VARIOUS PESTICIDAL FORMULATIONS Neem insecticides which are obtained from Neem seeds contain various arelated triterpenoids in addition to the Azadirachtin. However their efficacy is related directly to the content of Azadirachtin. These compounds do possess biological activity and they add to its effects. Pure Azadirachtin was shown to be effective in the fields (Mordue et al, 1997) but the natural mixtures of azadirachtin in Neem insecticides may usefully mitigate against the development of resistance compared to azadirachtin alone (Feng and Isman, 1995). The complex nature of azadirachtin and other sophisticated Neem constituents prevent their mass production by synthesis in the foreseeable future. The pesticidal Neem products used in practice include dried leaves, whole seed, decorticated seed, seed kernels, Neem oil, and Neem cake, remaining after extraction or extrusion of the oil from the seeds. Several Indian companies or institutions produce commercially Neem-based insecticidal formulations, such as RD-9 Repelin and Wellgro, for spraying against cutworms and other insect pests in tobacco growing areas; Nimbosol and Biosol for control of whiteflies; and the products Neemrich and Neemark, the latter also as an azadirachtin-enriched granular Neem formulation. In the U. S. A. , the EPA hasgranted registration to Margosan-O, an azadirachtin-enriched, concentrated Neem seed kernel extract formulation, for use on non food crops and ornamentals. Margosan-0 was developed by R. Larson of Vikwood Botanicals Inc. at Sheboygan, WI, in colla boration with the USDA Agricultural Research Center at Beltsville, MD. The rights to this product, which contains 0. 3% azadirachtin and 14%Neem oil (the 0 in the name of the product stands for oil), and has an oral toxicity in excess of 5,000 mg/kg in rats. Margosan-0 has been evaluated successfully against an extensive series of insects in the U. S. A. and Canada, Lyriornizu leafminers on ornamentals and tomatoes, cotton bugs, cockroaches and mosquitoes. Margosan-0 demonstrated highest activity against Ostriniu nubilalis , and against leafhoppers, against two species of local cotton pests, Enrias insulana and Spodoptera littoralis. Recently in the U. S. A. a further Neem formulation, developed. under the auspices of the Natural Products Institute, Salt Lake City, UT is †Azatin†(Agridyne Technologies, Salt Lake City, UT). Also, Safer Ltd. , a Canadian manufacturer specializing in environmentally safe pest control formulations, developed insecticides based on Neem. Safer , however, has been acquired recently by Ringer Corp. , Minneapolis, MN, which distributes Margosan-0 in the home garden market under the tradenames of â€Å"Bioneem† and â€Å"Neemesis†. Contrary to registration practices in use until now, no precise chemical descriptions of all the ingredients of Margosan-0 were required, but rather, demonstration of the biological activity and innocuousness of the whole mixture to no target organisms was used in the registration process. Hopefully such specially tailored toxicity studies will be used to judge and register Neem and similar natural products in the future. A recent report claims that the EPA has approved a Neem-based biological pesticide developed by an Indian company for use on a wide range of food crops. MODES OF ACTION Major modes of action of azadirachtin are: Powerful IGR. Feeding Deterrant. Oviposition Deterrant. These are the three modes of action of azadirachtin which make azadirachtin much sought after biopesticide in todays agriculture industry. IGR: Azadirachtin acts as a powerful growth regulator for insects and this IGR effect is the most pronounced mode of action of Azadirachtin. Normally IGR effect the hormonal system of insects, preventing the insects from developing into normal mature insects. This IGR property of Azadirachtin doesnot leads to immediate death of insects, pests. Azadirachtin as an IGR: The IGR property of Azadirachtin arise due to the fact that: Azadirachtin is structurally analogous to natural hormone Ecdysone. As Ecdysone regulates the development of insect, any disruption in its balance leads to improper development. Also Azadirachtin interferes with the production and reception of Ecdysone at the time of insects growth and moulting. Thus Azadirachtin in this manner block the moulting cycle resulting in the death of the insect, pest. The main action of Azadirachtin appears to be at the release site of PTTH. The mode of action of Azadirachtin as IGR is thus an Indirect Physiological Effect. It is exerted via the endocrine system. The copora cardiaca is supposed to be the target for the Azadirachtin as is affects the PTTH, Eclosin Hormone, Bursicin Hormone release. PTTH release is inhibited rather than Ecdysine from Prothorasic gland. Thus the Azadirachtin affects the neurosecretory cells of Brain. Various experiments show that Azadirachtin doesnt directly act on Prothorasic Glands. In the in vitro culture of Prothorasic (H. virescens) gland showed that the PTTH induced release of the Ecdysine was medium (Bidmon et al, 1987, Barnby and Klocke, 1990). Also it was not blocked in PTTH simulated cultured glands from M. sexta pupa penetrated with Azadirachtin in last larval instar (Pener et al, 1988). However receptivity of Prothorasic gland to PTTH was affected in H. virescens. Neurosecretory proteins stained with paraldehyde in L. migratolia females when was compared with similar aged azadirachtin treated females there was an accumaulation of stainable material in corpora cardiaca of brain neurosecretory system in treated insects. Thus is appears that azadirachtin blocks release of neurosecretory material from corpora cardiac. It can thus be concluded that Azadirachtin does block the release of peptide hormones from brain neurosecretory cell corpora cardiac complex. Azadirachtin also exhibit IGR effect by altering the titre of Juvenile Hormone (JH). Azadirachtin affects the release of allotropins into corpora dillata hence block the synthesis and release of the Juvenile Hormone. This block leads to a rapid decrease in whole body JH titres, which is maintained for several days. Experiments prove that in M. sexta larvae, azadirachtin infection on day 0 (1. 0-10  µg/ larva) results in induction of supernumerary moults (Sch et al, 1985; Beckage et al, 1988) presumably due to an inhibition and subsequent delay in JH titre. In adult female L. migratolia also azadirachtin treatment causes a rapid decrease in juvenile hormone titres with associated disturbances in oogenesis (Rembold, 1984; Rembold et al, 1987). Thus, on a conclusionary note, the effect of azadirachtin is both dose and time dependent. It prevents both apolysis and ecdysis and thus can cause death before the moults, during the moults or delays of moult to form permanent larvae. Feeding Deterrance: Feeding behavior is both dependent on chemical senses stimulated due to contact chemoreceptors on trasi, mouthparts and oral activity and integration of the sensory code with the CNS. Azadirachtin acts as feeding deterrant. Inhibition of the feeding behavior occurs: There are receptors present on and around mouthparts of insects which normally respond to Phagostimulants. So azadirachtin may act by blocking the input from these receptors. Also there are present specific â€Å"deterrent cells† in insects which prevent insect from feeding. Azadirachtin acts to stimulate these â€Å"deterrent cells† leading to feeding deterrence. Many experiments were done in this regard. Using different concentration of sucrose and azadirachtin, either singly or together, the neurophysiological responses from  ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­Ã‚ ­medial and lateral sensillia styloconica of maxillae showed different group of receptors are receptive to sucrose (sugar cells) or azadirachtin (deterrent cell) in S. exempta and M. brassicae in most of the cases, the rate of firing of sugar sensitive cells were reduced in presence of both chemicals (Simmonds and Blaney, 1984). Such an interaction was also found in P. brassicae. This leads to a reduced or complete inhibition of feeding. Direct mode of action: Incorporation of azadirachtin results in direct toxic effect after ingestion. Azadirachtin prevents the secretion of Proteolytic enzymes and thus significantly impair ability of insects to digest and absorb nitrogenous food. When azadirachtin is ingested it can result in the disfunctioning of gut, as a result of which midgut epithelial cells become round. Swelling of cells and organells occur with some vacuolization and cell burst resulting in necrosis (as observed in S. gregarea and L. migratolia Naseruddin and Mordue (Luntz), 1993a; Cottee, 1984). There is also reduction in the regenerative cells and increase in the connective tissue layer with some invading heomocytes. This would lead to disruption of enzyme secretion and nutrient absorption. Also the antifeedant effect can be attributed to the action of azadirachtin on the peristaltic movement of gut wall. The gut of treated insects lack tone, midgut to hindgut junction becomes flaccid and co-ordinated peristalsis is lacking which leads to antifeeding behavior. EFFECT OF AZADIRACHTIN ON INSECTS Effects on Feeding Azadirachtin is a classical example of a natural plant defence chemical affecting feeding. Antifeedancy is the major insecticidal effect of Azadirachtin. Antifeedant effect in insect pest on application of Azadirachtin is divided into two main categories: Primary Antifeedancy: It refers to the deterrence of feeding in insects. Primary Antifeedancy is also called Gustatory antifeedancy. It can be defined as the inability to ingest resulting from the perception of antifeedant at a sensory level (Schmutterer 1985). Insects fail to eat treated crops and as starvation ensued results in the death of insects. Secondary Antifeedant effect: It refers to the non-feeding after the ingestion of treated plant. Secondary antifeedancy is also called Non-Gustatory antifeedancy. It can be defined as the reduction in food consumption and digestive efficiency subsequent to and as a consequence of ingestion, application or injection of antifeedant (Schmutterer, 1985). Experiments conducted in the past in this regard by various persons: The first detailed experiment was conducted in S. gregaria (desert locusts) in India. Insects from different orders show marked difference in their response to azadirachtin. (Table 1) Lepidopteras showed extreme sensitivity to azadirachtin and depending upon species, effective anti-feedance was observed from less than 1 to 50 ppm. Hemiptera (Homoptera), Coleoptera are less sensitive to azadirachtin with 100 % antifeedancy observed at 100-600 ppm. However, in Orthoptera wide range of sensitivity has been observed. Reed and Pierce in 1981 tested the repellant effect of Neem extract to striped cucumber beetle (A. vittateim), by cutting leaves and dipping them in extract solution and placing them in a dish with untreated leaf pieces. When 5 fasting beetles were placed in a dish, 0. 1 % azadirachtin gave protection for atleast three days. The intake of food by various homopteran insects Nilaparvata lugens, Nephotettix virescens was significantly reduced on rice plants sprayed with 1-50% emulsion of Neem oil. ( ). In green rice leafhopper, N. virescens feeding on the phloem of neem oil treated plants (1. 25-10%) was significantly less than of solvent treated control plants, whereas xylem feeding increased. Hemipteran insects feeding on tobacco seedlings which had been systemically treated with 500 ppm azadirachtin, were shown initially to feed normally but, after termination of the initial feed, the interval prior to the next subsequent feed was significantly increased and feeding activity thereafter was suppressed (Nisbetet al. 1993). When azadirachtun was impregnated on discs at a concentration of 0. 1-10 ppm, S. littoralis(African cotton leafworm),Spodoptera frugiperda(J. E. Smith) (fall armyworm),Heliothis virescens(F. ) (Tobacco budworm) andHelicoverpa armigera(Hà ¼b. ) (Old world bollworm) showed significant beh avior response and are prevented from feeding on the discs dependent on species (Blaney et al. 1990, Simmonds et al. 1990, Mordue (Luntz) et al. 1998) Insects from different Orders differ markedly in their behavior responses to azadirachtin (Table 1). Lepidoptera are extremely sensitive to azadirachtin and show effective antifeedancies from

The Modernist Concept Of Urban Design Cultural Studies Essay

The Modernist Concept Of Urban Design Cultural Studies Essay The development of our towns and cities is intrinsically linked to many architectural and cultural patterns and trends of the past. Indeed the Aesthetic and strategic practices of architecture and urban design contribute, through a complex of formal and informal processes, to the creation of urban cultures as well as giving shape to distinctive city image [Stevenson 2003].The social and technological changes which characterised the end of the 19th and start of the 20th centuries, created a momentum of change in the art, design and culture of Western Europe, and precipitated a shift in the ideas behind design and architecture, that laid the foundations for the evolution of the modernist movement. In essence the modernist movement fundamentally altered the way that those who designed the towns and cities we lived in, viewed their role, based upon utopian fancies, standardisation, new industrial materials such as re-enforced concrete, chrome and plate glass, abstraction and a vehement a mbition to make a new world, not just a new art [Hughes 2006]. In Britain, the modernist movement did not really develop until the late 1920s and early 1930s, when the formation of institutions such as the Congres Internationaux dArchitecture Moderne (CIAM), began to formalise and standardise the idea of modernist architecture, not just as a means to design buildings, but to construct a whole new way of living a style which would seek to incorporate the form follows form mantra into the design of our cities and towns [Gibbered 2008]. During this time, continued urban migration, and the idea of using modern technology to exhort profound and positive influences via the design of our surroundings, was embraced by the majority of society, and soon captured by the imaginations of the architects. As the urban populations of the UK continued to grow, a new approach to urban planning was required that would be able to meet with the increased demand for housing and amenities. The modernist concept of urban design, saw the traditional urban model for development in the towns and cities of Britain relatively low-rise streets, squares and urban blocks eschewed in favour of a rational, usually orthogonal, distribution of slab and point blocks set in park land and open space. The idea of this design was that, rather than being enclosed by buildings, urban space would now flow freely around them [Carmona 2003], and that the Le Corbusier view of eliminating the relative disorder of urban areas would be achieved. An important development in the design of our towns and cities was the idea of how we lived. In 1934, the idea of communal living was first truly experimented on the middle classes with the design of the Lawn Road Flats in Hampstead (below). This idea of a more minimalist, functional way of living was fairly revolutionary to these social classes at the time and lay the way for similar residential developments such as the luxurious Highpoint one in 1935. This idea of communal living began to filter down to all social classes in London (such as such Maxwell Frys Kensal House, the first modernist social housing project in Britain, which opened in 1937), and influenced the development of inner city housing, which continued for another four decades. Lawn Road Flats in 1934 Image taken from http://designmuseum.org/ During the post-war years, the devestation that many had endured seemed to re-envigorate the national psyche with an optimism, and to many there was a sense that here seemed to be a growing idea that this was a chance, not only to re-build Britain structurally, but also to take the nation in a new direction [Gibbered 2008]. Of course, the urban areas of our cities and towns had taken most of the fallout, and this opportunity was seized by modernist architects who believed that, by changing the design of how we lived in our cities and towns, they could provide ambitious solutions to solve extensive social problems. This opportunity, and apparent political will to develop and implement modernist was seen in many of the post-war constructions in Europe, and later through slum clearance programmes and subsequent road-building schemes [Carmona 2003]. In Britain, an extensive re-building project began (by the mid-1950s, 2,500 schools had been built and ten entirely new towns were either un der construction or in the early stages of development), and there was a growing need for a town planning policy that could accommodate the needs of these people. This requirement for rapid functionality opened the door for Modernists to begin reshaping the appearance of British towns and cities [Gibbered 2008]. One of the key ideas that developed at this time, and has shaped many of Britains urban landscapes, was the idea that new towns would be designed and built from scratch. Modernist urban space generally appears in its purest forms when built on Greenfield sites [Carmona 2003], and as such this design seemed to be perfect to implement when strategising the development of these new towns a sort of blank canvass for many modernist architects of the time. The idea was to be able to create an urban modern utopia, which would deliver British city dwellers from the dark failures of Victorian housing to a bright new world of clean, functional towns [Gibbered 2008], with there dispersed site planning, brick housing, and homey peoples detailing [Hvattum and Hermansen 2004]. These New Towns†¦examples†¦. Depicted the modernist urban landscapes, presenting idealised sanitised visions of streets, public spaces, and buildings in which the users are little represented [Larkham 1997]. The pattern of modernist development in our towns and cities continued to dominate for the next couple of decades and, by the 1960s modernism had become the lingua franca of British architecture, whether it be schools, office complexes, homes, or even the new towns as above [Gibbered 2008]. Although perceived as successful demonstrations of urban utopia, the modernist ideal in urban development will be forever synonymous with the disastrous implementation of public housing schemes. Modernist urban space had moved away from buildings as consituent elements in urban blocks (i.e. concrete terraced masses) defining streets and squares, to buildings as separate free standing pavillions standing in amorphous space [Carmona 2003]. These planned estates could cope with high densities of population, and would provide the amminities that a community required within segregated blocks. What has since prevailed, and was marked during †¦.. The modern estates instead fostered a sense of isolation and anonymity, and reduced any existing sense of community. The product was fatally flawed; large blocks simplified the land-use pattern, and the nooks and crannies that house economically marginal but socially desirable uses and activities [Carmona 2003]. The rush to build high and fast system-built blocks prefabricated towers which could be assembled on site as a mean of housing in the cities of the UK, and the idea that †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ [Gibbered 2008]. During the early part of the twentieth century the transformations in terms of population, urban expansion, and a rapid development of communication and infrastructure, resulted in a society and a way of life bent on change and innovation, but also in instability, continual movement, and crisis [Hvattum and Hermansen 2004]. What now seems ill considered is that the visions for ideal cities, in particular those growing out of the modern movement in architecture, were diluted and warped by the messy business of reconstructing actual cities, filled with real people whilst operating within democratic structures [Jones 2004]. Somehow without any conscious intention on anyones part the ideals of free flowing space and pure architecture evolved into our present urban situation of individual buildings isolated in partking lots and highways [Tranick 1986]. Indeed, over the last two decades, the public criticism of this style of development in our towns and cities has resulted in an almost u niversally agreed idea that modernism, as a cogent philosophy of building a better society through architecture has failed [Gibbered 2008].

Merchant of Venice - Portia was No Feminist :: Merchant Venice Essays

Merchant of Venice: Portia was No Feminist The question has been proposed whether Portia was her own woman, and if after she married Bassanio would she still be the protector of her fortune. I researched for evidence to the theory that Portia was not her own, her fortune was not her own, and she was bound financially to her husband after marriage. There is nothing out of the ordinary about this particular arrangement, and I don't feel that the relationship should continue to be hailed as a progressive, feminist relationship. The best evidence I could find were the words which were spoken out of Portia's own mouth, One half of me is yours, the other half yours-- Mine own, I would say; but if mine, then yours, And so all yours. III.ii.16-18. There you have it. Portia is Bassanio's. This may be idle lover's talk; however, it does signify the beginning of a possessive relationship in which Bassanio is the possessor! Directly after Portia is "won" by Bassanio's correct choice in caskets she states, Happiest of all, is that her gentle spirit Commits itself to yours to be directed, As from her lord, her governor, her king. Myself, and what is mine, to you and yours Is now converted. . . . I was the lord of this fair mansion, master of my servants, Queen o'er myself; and even now, but now This house, these servants, and this same myself Are yours. . . . III.ii.163-171 I struggle to see how the relationship between Portia and Bassanio is worthy of feminist hurrahs. I believe Portia is a woman worthy of feminist scholarship, but not the relationship to her husband.

Capital Punishment Essay - It’s Time to Put Murderers in Their Graves :: Argumentative Persuasive Essays

Death Penalty Essays – It’s Time to Put Murderers in Their Graves      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   You are running down the street with your best friend not too far behind.   You manage to round the corner, but you hear your friend trip. Suddenly a shot rings out.   Your friend screams. You continue to run, but look back and see the man who was following you pull out a large knife. Shocked in terror you can only blankly stare as the man proceed to cut your friend to pieces.   The blade falls once.   There is an explosion of red. The blade falls twice. Entrails spill onto the floor.   The blade falls three times, four times, five, six.   He then reaches down and dips is hand into the blaring pool of crimson that soaks the ground.   Lifting his hand he begins to write on the wall in front of him with the freshly spilled blood of your now dead friend.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Would a situation like this horrify you? Well you should know that seven murders just like this occurred in two nights.   The man responsible is Charles Manson.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Manson is the leader of a large cult following, and even after being arrested for his truly horrific deeds still influences the cult today.   In 1975 one of Manson's followers, Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme, made an assassination attempt on then president Gerald Ford, in Manson's name. Even now if you go to New York City you can find shirts with his picture on them, glorifying him.   Songs have been written praising him.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   But together these have not yet touched the scariest thing about Charles Manson.   The thing that you should be most frightened of is that Charles Manson, and many like him are alive, with chance of parole.   Yes this murderous madman could yet again run rampant in the world. It is for this reason that the death penalty is necessary.      Ã‚     Ã‚  Capital punishment is the system by which the people who have committed the most heinous crimes are executed either by electric chair, gas chamber, or lethal injection.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Despite the evil and malice presented by such people there are some who would deem this practice inhumane.   It seems strange to me that the welfare of the community should not come before that of a convicted murderer.   If there is any chance that this person could possibly commit this crime again it should be impossible to come to a decision ,such as putting them in jail with chance of parole, that could conceivable place the lives of law abiding citizens in danger.   Furthermore do they truly expect us to believe that placing them in cells like caged animals is truly

Fast and Feast

Wednesday, I was appreciative and prayed like I said I would. When I found that I was appreciative I Just said a small thank you to God and I was proud of all the feasting that I had done. However, I found that even though I was appreciative I was still complaining. One of the things we, as Christians, are asked to do during Lent is make a sacrifice that will help us focus on resisting worldly distractions. Although complaining is not what you would normally think of as a worldly distraction such as TV or the computer, it still distracts me from God. During the first two days I realized that I had to balance my appreciation and complaining.I could not focus wholly on one or else I would forget about the other. On both Thursday and Friday of that week I tried my best to concentrate on both my feasting and fasting and learned by the end how to keep from complaining but also appreciate everything I am given and all the opportunities I have. One of these spoken opportunities was the chan ce to go on the Mid-night Run. It was very fitting that this was the last day of my five-day fasting/ feasting project because I feel like I was most appreciative during this day. All the people on the Mid-night Run went into NY City and handed out clothes and food to the homeless.At first I tried to be impartial to the whole matter because I did not want to cry in the middle of a city street. However, as the people started coming more and more I found myself feeling so sorry for them. I said a quick prayer in my head for them and that wherever they would sleep would be warm since it was so cold outside. What really affected me was when a small woman came over and asked If we had any underwear. This In particular blew my mind; I then realized how bad they must have It If a woman has to beg for underwear. Even though the five-day fasting/ feasting project is over I still try not to complain.When I do, I think of how fortunate I am in comparison to all those people out there who wish for half the life I have. Dying to ourselves, letting go of our own wants and needs, leaves us open to invite God in, to pay attention to something other than ourselves. This experience has made me more aware of all the joy that I deprived myself of. When I stopped myself from complaining, I realized how much better I felt. I felt as if I had made the whole situation better for myself and I did. When I stopped complaining, I subsequently stopped petty arguments and cruel or annoyed moods.Once I stopped I found yeses in a better mood altogether and I think It also rubbed off on the people around me. Overall, letting go of my own wants and needs, gave everyone an Improved attitude and allowed for more room to let God In. By not complaining I have a whole part of my life that essentially cut of. This part has now been filled with my appreciation and God. By separating myself from complaining I can turn to God and appreciative and happy I bring on that sense of fulfillment to other peop le. For Catholics, â€Å"dying to ourselves, we enter some way or another into Chrism's dying and we rise to new life with Him as well. † (TM p. 9) The new life I have been brought is one of acceptance and appreciation. As I moved through the week, I found that as I complained less, I became more and more relax as well. The complaining, when I was unable to stop myself, bothered me more than I think it bothered my parents. I found that I started to enjoy myself more as I accepted events around me. I knew I could not change that fact that it was cold outside so I accepted it for what it was and appreciated that I had clothes to keep me warm. By living this new life that was one of acceptance and appreciation I feel as if I have also opened up a new relationship tit God.I am closer to my ultimate vocation, union with God, after having been brought this new life through my fasting/feasting project. The overall purpose of Lent is to prepare for Easter and prepare to celebrate new life with the Resurrection. It is also a period of intense preparation for catchments to enter the church. During this preparation, Christians focus on living the Kingdom of God more intensely than they do during the rest of the year. This fasting is not only a literal fast from eating, but also a chance to make a sacrifice that will help us Ochs on resisting worldly distractions.This is self-discipline and also an opportunity to make more room for God and to move closer to him. When we fast together as a community, it is the whole church community opening themselves up to God together. My experience over the last five days has helped me live out the purpose of Lent by exposing me to the deeper meaning of the fast. Instead of Just giving up candy or chips, I have given up a part of my life that has only brought me down, and opened myself up to happiness, fulfillment, acceptance, appreciation, and a closer relationship with God.

Genetic Engineering in Food Production Essay

Genetic Engineering in Food Production: Is it Safe, Wise, and Moral? Over the past couple of decades, the genetic engineering has been found and is regarded as the improvement of advanced technology in the field of biology. Ever since the first gene was cloned in 1973, genetic engineers have been pursuing at break-neck speed the unlimited possibilities promised by biotechnology . Their excitement, which has generated billions of investment dollars for the industry, is understandable. Bioengineering allows scientists to identify specific gene sequences responsible for particular characteristics and then to transfer the genes — and the specific trait — into entirely different species. One of the more current and controversial issue in the field of biotechnology is the use of bioengineering in food production. Scientists are experimenting with many different plants, but the genetic engineering of the tomato, dubbed Flavr Savr has been the most highly publicized project by far. The new tomato is supposed to boast more red and be tastier due to its longer staying time on the vine, thereby giving it more time to accumulate sweetness; yet, it will not rot or spoil because of its new genetic makeup. (Davidson 1993). With this advanced technology scientists argue that it could offer the greatest hope in the aid to stop hunger in Third World countries. This new technology could be used to make bulk levels of food production more efficient and less costly. However, despite all of its advantages in creating better crops, many people are very skeptical about its safe and possible long-term health effects. Moreover, the social issue lies deep in the realm of ethical and moral concerns. Do people really want to eat meat that is leaner and tastier but contains genes from humans? Or, would individuals (like vegetarians) be able to eat certain vegetables that may contain genes from animals? Personally, I would not support the use of genetic engineering in food production based on moral and ethical reasons: I do not think that scientists should be able to use their knowledge and social prestige in society to be able to play the role of God in creating new or better living things even if their justification is for the purpose of serving mankind. Although we still have much to learn about genes, recently developed techniques have already given rise to a new technology of molecular genetics. Genetic engineering, also known as gene splicing/manipulation and recombinant DNA technology is a set of techniques for reconstructing, or deliberately manipulating, the genetic material of an organism. Operating at the molecular level, this process involves the addition, deletion, or reorganization of pieces of an organism’s DNA (known as genes) in order to alter that organism’s protein production (Arms et al. 1994). The use and applications of genetic engineering range from medical and pharmaceutical to industrial crops and food products. Its applications, today or in the future, include†¦creating improved strains of crops and farm animals (Arms et al. 1994). All of these applications rely on the ability to transplant genes into a cell’s makeup, or genome. The new gene may come from another organism, of the same species, or it may contain DNA produced in the laboratory. One example, the new Flavr Savr tomato, developed by Calgene, a biotechnology company based in Davis, California, was subjected to years of scrutiny before the FDA (Food and Drug Administration) agreed that it was safe to eat. They found, copied, and rebuilt a gene that lets these tomatoes stay on the vine without softening and spoiling. That means that the fruit can develop more of the sugars and acids that make a home-grown tomato taste so sweet and rich. Conventional tomatoes sold in the stores are often hard and flavorless because they are picked while green and firm enough to transport, then ‘ripened’ by spraying with ethylene (Wood 1995). This turns the tomato red but does nothing to develop a riper flavor. Ethylene, a colorless, odorless gas that once kicks in, so do all the problems of perishability (Wood 1995). Since tomatoes have a softening gene, it produces RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) to help manufacture a protein that causes rotting. To stop the tomatoes going soft too soon, the researchers devised a way to block production of the enzyme polygalacturonase, which breaks down cell walls and eventually causes the fruit to rot (Miller 1994). The Calgene scientists inserted a mirror image of the softening gene that produces a reverse copy of the RNA. This reverse RNA blocks the action of the regular RNA and helps to preserve the fruit. All in all, Calgene seems to have produced a good but hardly outstanding tomato using antisense technology, given all the propaganda and advertisements. A couple of the reasons for why the tomato failed were because: (a) the manipulation of the ripening gene had unintended consequences (soft skin, weird taste, compositional changes); and (b) the high price — they tried selling it at first for$2. 99 a pound (as expensive as organic tomatoes), then later dropped the price to $2. 49, then $1. 99, then . 99. Furthermore, the general public does not seem persuaded or have caught up with this trend yet. For one, people are greatly concerned about the safety of the product since the FDA does not insist that genetically engineered foods carry a special label, even though the FDA assured consumers that they can be confident in knowing that foods produced by genetic engineering are as safe as food in our grocery stores today, stated FDA Commissioner David A. Kessler, MD (Miller 1994). However, critics have cited a case in which at least 31 people died and 1500 contracted a fatal blood disease after ingesting a genetically engineered batch of L-trytophan, a dietary supplement (Davidson 1993). Without proper labeling it will be impossible for consumers to exercise their right to choose what kind of foods they eat. Another issue among consumers and environmental activist groups is that of moral and ethical concerns. Many people feel that scientists might have gone too far in terms of experimentation. We have now come to the end of the familiar pathway of leaving everything to the creation of Mother Nature. With the rise of advanced technology in genetics, scientists now possess the ability to manipulate genes, and redirect the course of evolution. They can reassemble old genes and devise new ones. They can plan, and with computer simulation, anticipate the future forms and paths of life. Hence, the old ways of evolution will be dwarfed by the role of purposeful human intelligence. However, just as nature stumbled upon life billions of years ago and began the process of evolution, so too would the new creators of life find that living organisms all have a destiny of their own. To evaluate the validity of the benefits of this technology, we need to answer three simple questions: Is it safe, is it wise, is it moral? Sinsheimer 1987). To answer the first question about whether it is safe, if the technological developments are kept open to public knowledge and scrutiny, I think in the short term it could be. This way the general public can monitor the hazards of any new product introduced into the biosphere, and can probably cope with any immediate problems or consequences. In answering the second question of whether it is wise, I would say that it is not. Through decades of research, scientists have learned of the different pathogens that prey on humans, animals, and major crops. But I believe that their knowledge is still very limited in trying to understand what led to these organisms’ existence and modes of adaptation. Thus scientists cannot really predict whether all their new discoveries and creations might somehow lead to a new and unexpected group of harmful species since potential organisms that could be converted by one or more mutations be transformed from harmless bugs to serious risks. Finally, to answer the question of the advantages of genetic engineering in terms of morality and ethics, I can only say that the more we create, the more problems we will have in the long run in trying to solve them. Life has evolved on this planet into a delicately balanced and fragile network of selfsustaining interactions and equilibrium. If we try to change or replace the creatures and vegetation of this earth with human-designed forms to conform to human will, I believe we will forget our origins and inadvertently collapse the ecological system in which we were found. Moreover, do we really want to assume the full responsibility for the structure and make-up of our world? I think that we seriously need to intervene between the scientists and engineers to consider a solution that will help slow down all of these experiments so that we could step back and look at what we are doing. If not, I think that these practicing scientists and researchers should be more broadly educated in our humanistic values and traditions. They need to understand the implications of what they are doing in order to be able to balance the concerns of the natural environment and that of society’s humanistic needs; to bear in mind that technology exists only to serve and not create. Human beings, are of course, sprung from the same DNA and built of the same molecules as all other livings things. But if we begin to regard ourselves as just another group of subjects to test our experiments on by altering or tampering with the foods we eat, just like another crop to be engineered or another breed to be perfected, we will surely lose our awe of humanity and undermine all sense of human dignity.